Copyright is held by the authors. Articles in JNAH are made available under
a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International license.




19
DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE SUWANNEE COOTER,
PSEUDEMYS CONCINNA SUWANNIENSIS, IN THE ALAFIA
RIVER (HILLSBOROUGH COUNTY, FLORIDA, USA)
INTRODUCTION
The Suwannee Cooter, Pseudemys concinna suwan-
niensis, is the largest emydid turtle in North America and
occurs in river systems draining into the northeastern
Gulf of Mexico from the Ochlockonee River in the east-
ern Florida panhandle, southward to Phillippi Creek in
the southern peninsula (Figure 1; Heinrich et al. 2015,
Heinrich and Walsh 2019). This principally riverine tur-
tle exhibits prominent sexual dimorphism (adult females
significantly larger than adult males) and is primarily
herbivorous after the juvenile stage (Jackson and Walk-
er 1997, Jackson, 2006). Threats to this species include
take for human consumption (illegal in Florida since
2009), predation of turtles and nests, loss or degrada-
tion of nesting and basking habitat, water quality deg-
ABSTRACT: The Suwannee Cooter, Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis, is a geographically limited turtle of
conservation concern that inhabits Florida rivers draining into the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Threats
impacting its conservation status include take for human consumption, predation of turtles and nests,
loss or degradation of nesting and basking habitat, water quality degradation, and boat strikes. Our
surveys revealed that the Alafia River, which drains into Hillsborough Bay (northeastern Tampa Bay),
is likely the stronghold of the southern distribution of P. c. suwanniensis. Multiple survey methods
during 2015-2020 revealed that a substantial population of Suwannee Cooters inhabits much of this
blackwater river system, including the main channel and at least one of its two primary tributaries.
GIS analysis showed that more than half of the shoreline within the occupied extent is currently
protected by conservation lands, although additional protection of private lands and improved habitat
management protocols are needed to assure the population’s conservation.
Key Words: Alafia River, anthropogenic threats, Pseudemys concinna, Suwannee Cooter, turtle
conservation
GEORGE L. HEINRICH1,2, TIMOTHY J. WALSH2,3, DALE R. JACKSON4,
AND J. SEAN DOODY5
JNAH
ISSN 2333-0694
Volume 2021, Number 1
March 2021
journals.ku.edu/jnah
The Journal of North American Herpetology
1Heinrich Ecological Services, 1213 Alhambra Way S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33705-4620, USA,
george@heinrichecologicalservices.com (corresponding author)
2Florida Turtle Conservation Trust, 1213 Alhambra Way S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33705-4620, USA
3Bruce Museum, 1 Museum Drive, Greenwich, Connecticut 06830, USA,
turtleconservationist@gmail.com
4Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Florida State University, 1018 Thomasville Road, Suite 200-C,
Tallahassee, Florida 32303, USA, djackson@fnai.fsu.edu
5University of South Florida, Department of Integrated Biology, St. Petersburg Campus, 140 7th
Avenue S., St. Petersburg, Florida 33701, USA, jseandoody@gmail.com
radation, and boat strikes (Jackson 2006; Heinrich et al.
2010, 2012). Although delisted as a Species of Special
Concern by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation
Commission in 2017, the agency has developed a spe-
cies action plan as required for imperiled taxa (Florida
Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission 2013). The
subspecies has been placed within various taxonomies by
investigators (Seidel 1981, 1994; Ward 1984; Jackson
1995), with most authorities currently recognizing su-
wanniensis as a subspecies of P. concinna (Jackson 1995,
2002, 2006; Seidel and Dreslik 1996; Meylan 2006). We
follow the taxonomy adopted by Meylan (2006) and the
Turtle Taxonomy Working Group (2017). A Pseudemys
taxonomy workshop organized by H. Bradley Shaffer and
Peter A. Scott (University of California, Los Angeles) in
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
20
2019 addressed the need for a thorough revision of the
genus.
Distribution and status of P. c. suwanniensis within its
southern range has long been uncertain and hence of
conservation concern. Publications as late as 2015 indi-
cated a distributional gap of ~79 km occurring between
the Weeki Wachee River and Alafia River, long believed
to be the southernmost limit of distribution (Heinrich et
al. 2015). However, subsequent rapid assessment field
surveys documented its occurrence within this hiatus in
the Pithlachascotee and Anclote rivers (Walsh and Hein-
rich 2015, 2016). Apparent absence from the moderately
large Hillsborough River (Marchand 1942, Jackson 2006),
the only remaining river in this gap, calls for a thorough
survey. Additional fieldwork south of the Alafia River doc-
umented P. c. suwanniensis in the Little Manatee River,
Manatee River, and Phillippi Creek (Heinrich and Walsh
2016, 2019). Rivers and streams to the south of Phillippi
Creek need to be surveyed to determine the subspecies’
true distributional terminus. Although recent fieldwork
noted above documented a range extension southward,
those populations appear less dense. A range map in
Krysko et al. (2019) shows a record of P. concinna south
of the southernmost locality documented by Heinrich
and Walsh (2019). The former record is based upon four
specimens collected from Woodmere, Florida by Archie
F. Carr on 18 November 1934 (UF 589-590, 594-595).
Based on a different taxonomy in use at that time (e.g.,
Carr 1935, Pope 1939), we suspect these specimens may
not represent what is currently recognized as P. concin-
na. Incomplete museum records and the Covid-19 pan-
demic of 2020 precluded us from accessing the speci-
mens for identification. Further investigation is needed
to clarify this problematic record.
The Alafia River is a moderately-sized blackwater sys-
tem with water levels and flow heavily influenced by tidal
fluctuations and seasonal rainfall (Figures 2-3). The riv-
er system flows through a mixture of natural and urban
areas within a large phosphate mining region (Cardinale
1998). The Alafia River basin and natural communities
have been negatively impacted by anthropogenic activ-
ities, including mining, agriculture, and extensive resi-
dential and recreational development (Cardinale 1998,
Heinrich et al. 2015). This river system supports three
sympatric species in the genus Pseudemys: Suwannee
Cooter, Peninsula Cooter (P. floridana peninsularis), and
Florida Red-bellied Cooter (P. nelsoni). The earliest spec-
imens of P. c. suwanniensis from the Alafia River were
collected by Walter Auffenberg, Larry H. Ogren, and John
W. Crenshaw, Jr. on 22 November 1953 (USNM 137634-
137635; Heinrich et al. 2015). Subsequent infrequent
observations and specimens collected are summarized
by Heinrich et al. (2015). The objectives of the study
reported here were to determine the distribution and
status of P. c. suwanniensis in the Alafia River. This ef-
fort builds upon our previous work in unstudied and un-
derstudied areas, and herein we present results of the
Fig. 1. Map of Florida rivers in which Pseudemys concinna
suwanniensis occur, as well as rivers from which they are absent
or unknown (Heinrich et al. 2015, Heinrich and Walsh 2016,
2019).
Fig. 2. Alafia River (Hillsborough County, Florida). Photograph by
George L. Heinrich.
Fig. 3. Senior author surveying for turtles in the Alafia River
(Hillsborough County, Florida). Note debris in overhead trees
indicating higher water level in the past. Photograph by Timothy
J. Walsh.
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
21
conduct survey work on sunny days to maximize basking
behavior, and restricted fieldwork to weekdays to limit
disturbance by recreational boaters. We recorded infor-
mation for each Pseudemys observed similar to Enge and
Wallace (2008): location using a hand-held Garmin GPS
unit, estimated age class (juvenile, subadult, adult), sex
(based on body size, foreclaw length, and tail length),
and activity (basking on an embedded object [log or
stick in the river not attached to the bank], basking on a
sweeper [log or stick extending from the bank], basking
on a floating log, basking on land, and floating or swim-
ming).
Basking Survey from Water
We searched for all three species of Pseudemys in the
Alafia River, including navigable sections of the North and
South prongs, from a motorboat or kayaks. Lack of vis-
ible basking sites downriver from Williams Park at US
41 to where it empties into Hillsborough Bay precluded
inclusion of this section. Two survey trips (10 March and
18 September 2015) were conducted by motorboat (two
observers) between Bell Shoals Road and Williams Park,
a span of ~16 km. The area from the convergence of the
North and South prongs in AFCP downriver to Bell Shoals
Road (~22 km) was surveyed twice from solo kayaks
(two observers) on 1, 2 June and 16, 21 October 2015.
This section contains shallow limestone outcroppings
that limit access by motorboat.
We used solo kayaks (two observers) to survey for the
three Pseudemys species in the only navigable section
of the South Prong, a span of ~12 km (~2 km upstream
and ~10 km downstream of Thatcher Road) on 26 Oc-
tober and 25, 29 November 2016, and 10 April 2017.
A single survey trip on the North Prong was conducted
from an accessible point in appropriate habitat at East
Keysville Road (CR 676) to the convergence of the North
and South prongs in AFCP (~7 km) on 26 October 2020.
The water-based survey employed binoculars and a
digital camera as described for the basking survey from
land. We recorded information for each Pseudemys ob-
served as described above. When possible, Suwannee
Cooters were hand-captured, given unique identification
marks (marginals filed), sexed, measured (max. cara-
pace length [CL], max. plastron length [PL], max. cara-
pace width [CW], max. shell height [SH]) to the nearest
mm), weighed to the nearest gram, and photographed
(carapace and plastron).
Local Community Survey
We surveyed the local community for information re-
garding the presence of Suwannee Cooters. A flier (Fig-
ure 5) requesting observations was created, and 5,000
copies were distributed from 21 February-18 September
2015 to residences in communities along the Alafia River,
including the North and South prongs. The flier included
a phone number and email address for contacting us. In
addition, an iNaturalist (www.inaturalist.org) project was
created and a link provided on the flier so that obser-
vations could be submitted online. Information received
from 41 responders led us to visit seven sites (two ob-
servers), four of which were checked a second time.
Survey on Conservation Lands
We surveyed Alderman’s Ford Nature Preserve (AFNP;
6 June, 1 August, 27 October, and 10 November 2015)
and Lithia Springs Conservation Park (LSCP; 27 July
first focused field investigation (2015-2020) at this site.
Further, we compare the results and efficacy of multiple
survey methods that we employed to identify locations
of this species within the river system. Our methods and
findings should be valuable to researchers planning fur-
ther ecological studies and the latter will provide infor-
mation allowing agencies to consider this species in hab-
itat management and conservation efforts.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
Study Area
The Alafia River has a watershed of ~1,082 km2 (Stok-
er et al. 1996), mostly in eastern Hillsborough County,
and is fed by two major tributaries originating in Polk
County (Figure 4). The North Prong Alafia River flows
westward where it merges with the South Prong Ala-
fia River at Alderman’s Ford Conservation Park (AFCP)
in eastern Hillsborough County. From the conservation
park, the Alafia River flows ~37 km westward and emp-
ties into Hillsborough Bay (northeastern Tampa Bay) at
Gibsonton (Parsons 2008). Lithia Spring Major and Buck-
horn Main Spring (second magnitude springs) and their
associated short spring runs feed into the normally tan-
nic river (Scott et al. 2004). Tidal fluctuations influence
the lower ~18 km of the river which is heavily developed
with residential properties and shoreline hardening (Car-
dinale 1998).
Methods
Basking Survey from Land
Google Earth and traditional maps (e.g., DeLorme Flor-
ida Atlas & Gazetteer 2003) were utilized to identify 33
potential viewing points to monitor for all three species of
Pseudemys basking along the shoreline of the Alafia Riv-
er, including the North and South prongs. We conducted
two reconnaissance trips (8, 14 January 2015) to assess
habitat suitability for P. c. suwanniensis and to evalu-
ate safe and legal access to sites. Based on these con-
siderations, we selected 20 locations, all in Hillsborough
County. Site selection excluded areas located upstream
in Polk County as they appeared to lack appropriate hab-
itat to support Suwannee Cooters. We used binoculars
(8x42), a spotting scope (80 mm, 20-60x), and a digital
camera (55-250 mm lens) to survey for basking turtles
at the 20 monitored sites from 20 January-10 December
2015. Individual sites were visited by two observers (on
all but one date) from 2-8 times throughout the year and
no longer monitored once there was a confirmed sighting
of P. c. suwanniensis. Fieldwork (all methods) was gen-
erally conducted from 900-1700 hours. We attempted to
Fig. 4. Satellite map indicating Alafia River system (Hillsborough
and Polk counties, Florida).
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
22
2015) for skeletal remains and depredated nests using
1-5 surveyors. Collected material was deposited at the
Florida Museum of Natural History. At LSCP, we used
snorkeling (two swimmers) to search for turtles in two
short spring runs associated with Lithia Spring Major and
Lithia Spring Minor on 2 June and 21 October 2015. This
was the only area where water clarity and legal access
allowed us to use this technique. We also surveyed (2
observers) the same spring runs and associated shore-
line from land on 17 February, 21 April, 13 May, and 27
June 2015.
Land Status
We used 2015 aerial imagery in ArcMap and 2020
imagery in Google Earth in an attempt to quantify
shoreline hardening and proximity to development
(residential, business, and paved roads) within 60
m of all Suwannee Cooter observations. ArcMap was
also used to measure length of shoreline in private vs.
designated conservation lands, as documented by the
Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI 2020), within the
entire river system stretch documented to support this
turtle. Because some conservation lands bordered only
one side of the river (and/or prongs), we made separate
determinations for each side (principally north of main
river/east of South Prong, and south of main river/west
of South Prong).
RESULTS
Utilizing multiple survey methods, we observed P. c.
suwanniensis at 65 locations spanning an uninterrupted
stretch of ~47 linear km within the Alafia River system
(Figures 6-8). While most observations were made on
the main river (59), a small number of sightings were
also recorded from the North Prong (1) and South Prong
(5).
Basking Survey from Land
This method produced seven GPS points (1 on North
Prong, 6 on main river) representing a total of nine
Suwannee Cooters (1 juvenile, 8 adults; Table 1, Figure
8); these included one male, four females, and four
of undetermined sex. Eight individuals were observed
basking on embedded or sweeper logs, and a single
turtle was seen swimming in the water.
Basking Survey from Water
The basking survey from water documented 50 GPS
points (4 on South Prong, 46 on main river) representing
a minimum number of 59 P. c. suwanniensis sightings
(Table 1, Figure 8). Surveying the main river twice
(convergence of the North and South prongs to Williams
Park at US 41) allowed us to collect additional GPS points,
the primary goal of this project. Therefore, counts may
Fig. 5. “Wanted: Information on Suwannee Cooter Sightings”
flier.
Fig. 6. Basking adult female Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis
in the Alafia River (Hillsborough County, Florida). Photograph by
George L. Heinrich.
Fig. 7. Basking juvenile Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis in
the Alafia River (Hillsborough County, Florida). Photograph by
Timothy J. Walsh.
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
23
represent some individuals that were observed during
both trips.
Determining species, age class, and sex were difficult
using this method due to viewing distance (up to 75 m),
vessel movement, and wariness of turtles causing them
to abruptly abandon basking sites. Hence, we were only
able to confidently classify 11 juveniles, five subadults,
and 32 adults (6 males, 1 female). Forty-nine turtles
were recorded basking on embedded, sweeper, and
floating logs, in addition to one basking on shore. Three
turtles were seen floating or swimming.
Two juvenile Suwannee Cooters were captured and
processed during the course of fieldwork on the main
river. At AFNP, we captured a yearling that was basking
on a sweeper log (CL 68 mm, PL 62 mm, CW 62 mm,
SH 34 mm, mass 53 g). We also captured a yearling
swimming in the main river at LSCP (CL 53 mm, PL 46
mm, CW 49 mm, SH 26 mm, mass 25 g).
Local Community Survey
The 5,000 fliers that we distributed generated 41
responses (via emails, phone calls, and iNaturalist)
reporting possible Suwannee Cooter observations
made by local community residents. Three responses
included photographs of nesting females (2) and a single
hatchling. The seven sites that were monitored yielded
observations of five adult P. c. suwanniensis representing
four GPS points on the main river (Table 1, Figure 8).
These turtles represented two males, one female, and
two of undetermined sex, all of which were basking on
embedded or sweeper logs.
Survey on Conservation Lands
The survey on conservation lands along the main river
yielded two GPS points (Table 1, Figure 8). At LSCP, three
Suwannee Cooters were observed in the main river at
the mouth of the run associated with Lithia Spring Major.
An adult male was observed basking on a log, and two
turtles (1 adult and 1 of undetermined age class, and
both of undetermined sex) were seen swimming next to
that log. No turtles were observed during the two times
that we searched (from shore) the spring runs associated
with Lithia Spring Major and Lithia Spring Minor.
At AFNP, we found a single shell (UF 181849) of a
depredated juvenile Suwannee Cooter on the bank
of the main river at a powerline right-of-way. Due to
its condition, we were limited in regard to collecting
morphometric data (PL 48 mm, SH 28 mm). We also
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
24
observed what appeared to be an abandoned nesting
attempt (uncovered three-hole nest containing no eggs)
by either a P. c. suwanniensis or P. f. peninsularis.
Miscellaneous Observations
Two GPS points were produced tangentially to other
fieldwork and could not be assigned to one of the four
survey methods (Table 1, Figure 8). Two adult Suwannee
Cooters (1 male, 1 of undetermined sex) were observed
basking on the trunk of a live tree in a flooded cow
pasture along the South Prong at Jameson Road. An
adult male P. c. suwanniensis was seen basking on an
embedded log in the main river at McMullen Loop Road,
1.3 km upriver from US 301.
Land Status
Because of canopy overhang along the river, only
three instances of shoreline hardening were readily
observable (using ArcMap and 2020 imagery in Google
Earth) adjacent to the 65 points at which Suwannee
Cooters were observed. Based on observations from
watercraft during the field survey, we know the actual
number to have been higher. The presence of residential
and business development, as well as paved roads within
60 m of Suwannee Cooter sightings, therefore served as
a proxy. Thirty-eight sites (58%) were within 60 m of
hardened development, vs. 27 (42%) that were not.
Conservation lands line much of the main river and
South Prong within the 47.6 km stretch identified as
Suwannee Cooter habitat (Table 2, Figure 8). The
continuous shoreline comprising the northern bank of
the main river, eastern bank of the South Prong, and
lowermost North Prong includes 22.3 km of private lands
(46.8%) and 25.3 km of lands in conservation (53.2%).
Protection is even greater on the main river’s southern
bank and adjoining western bank of the South Prong, with
30.6 km (65.2%) in conservation and 16.3 km (34.8%)
still private.
Other Herpetofaunal Species Documented
In addition to the three Pseudemys species, we also
documented the following herpetofauna during the course
of this study: Southern Toad (Anaxyrus terrestris), Green
Treefrog (Hyla cinerea), Cuban Treefrog (Osteopilus
septentrionalis; non-native), American Alligator (Alligator
mississippiensis), Florida Chicken Turtle (Deirochelys
reticularia chrysea), False Map Turtle (Graptemys
pseudogeographica; non-native), Red-eared Slider
(Trachemys scripta elegans; non-native), Striped Mud
Turtle (Kinosternon baurii), Gopher Tortoise (Gopherus
polyphemus), Florida Softshell Turtle (Apalone ferox),
Brown Anole (Anolis sagrei; non-native), Eastern Six-
lined Racerunner (Aspidoscelis s. sexlineata), Eastern
Fence Lizard (Sceloporus undulatus), Southern Black
Fig. 8. Distribution of Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis sightings (N= 65) in the Alafia River (Hillsborough County, Florida) based on
this study. At this scale, some nearby observations are obscured by others.
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
25
Racer (Coluber constrictor priapus), and Florida Water
Snake (Nerodia fasciata pictiventris). Six T. s. elegans
were observed both in the river and on land, including 3
roadkilled hatchlings. Population levels of this invasive,
non-native subspecies should be monitored (Ernst and
Lovich 2009).
DISCUSSION
Our study is novel in examining the distribution of P.
c. suwanniensis throughout an entire river catchment;
this is important because the Alafia River is likely the
subspecies’ stronghold in the southern portion of its range,
based on our studies of this and other regional drainages
(Heinrich et al. 2015; Walsh and Heinrich 2015, 2016;
Heinrich and Walsh 2016, 2019). In this paper, we report
what we observed to be the upstream and downstream
limits of Suwannee Cooters and suggest potential factors
limiting their distribution. We document a reduction in
spring use based on historical records and anecdotally
assess the level of current threats to the subspecies in the
catchment. We also inform management by calculating
that more than half of the river stretches occupied by
P. c. suwanniensis are bordered by conservation lands.
The distribution of conservation fliers to the public made
a minor contribution to the distributional data set, but
provided valuable, rare information on nesting sites and
likely raised awareness of Suwannee Cooters in the river
system.
Suwannee Cooters were not observed beyond ~0.22
km upstream in the North Prong and ~22 km upstream in
the South Prong, likely due to unsuitable habitat further
upstream. The narrow prongs have abundant potential
basking sites but less open canopy, and currents are
slower than typically favored by P. c. suwanniensis
(Jackson 2006). The most downstream observation
in the main river was at McMullen Loop Road (1.3 km
upriver from US 301). Beyond this point the tidally-
influenced river widens and basking structures become
sparse. Although turtles may occur in the lower section
approaching the river mouth, lack of visible basking
sites downriver of Williams Park at US 41 precluded
its inclusion in our survey. This subspecies has been
documented to occur, at least occasionally, in brackish
coastal waters (Carr 1940, 1952; Carr and Goin 1955;
Jackson 2006). We did not have legal access to Buckhorn
Main Spring and Buckhorn Creek (the mouth of which is
located at a high-use recreational area on the river), but
did document Suwannee Cooters in the main river near
the creek mouth.
Our study, combined with other research and sur-
veys, strongly suggests that the Alafia River system is
the stronghold for this obligatory riverine species in the
southern portion of the range. The species occurs in a
few rivers to the south of the Alafia River (Heinrich and
Walsh 2016, 2019), although population densities appear
to be much lower. Moreover, the Alafia River differs from
most of the rivers occupied by northern populations of
Suwannee Cooters. Most studies of P. c. suwanniensis
have been conducted with populations inhabiting the rel-
atively clear waters of spring-fed river systems within
the subspecies’ northern range (Giovanetto 1992, Mey-
lan et al. 1992, Jackson and Walker 1997, Huestis and
Meylan 2004, Chapin and Meylan 2011, Johnston et al.
2016, Munscher 2017, Johnston et al. 2020). Water clar-
ity in these habitats allows for the use of snorkeling and
hand-capture; this technique (mask only) was used in
the earliest fieldwork on Suwannee cooters by Marchand
(1942) in Rainbow Run (Marion County, Florida). A period
of reduced tannin load and greater water clarity in the
normally tannic Santa Fe River (Alachua and Columbia
counties, Florida) made use of snorkeling and hand-cap-
ture possible during a mark-recapture study (Kornilev
et al. 2010). Jackson and Walker (1997) employed only
hand-captures on land during their study of nesting tur-
tles at Wakulla Springs State Park (Wakulla County, Flor-
ida). Other studies have included basking surveys and
trapping, essential techniques in blackwater habitats that
preclude the use of snorkeling (Jackson 1997, 2002; Bal-
lou et al. 2016). Basking surveys in rivers and streams in
the southern portion of the range are needed to confirm
that the Alafia River is the southern stronghold of the
species.
The survey conducted on conservation lands produced
only 2 GPS points, observations of basking/swimming
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
26
turtles at LSCP and a single shell of a depredated juveni-
le at AFNP. Records of Suwannee Cooters were reported
from Lithia Spring Major in 1953 and 1964-1968 (Hein-
rich et al. 2015), but no sightings were made during our
binocular survey from land and while snorkeling. This
spring has been a popular public recreational site since
1957, and the substrate of this ~4,332 m2 human-mo-
dified swimming area is now bare white sand with some
algae. Surveying for intact or depredated nests at LSCP
and AFNP resulted in a single observation of a three-hole
nest containing no eggs at the latter. However, because
both P. c. suwanniensis and P. f. peninsularis construct
three-hole nests, we were unable to confirm identifica-
tion of the species (Carr 1952; Jackson and Walker 1997,
Jackson 2006).
Several factors are likely to threaten this population.
Situation of the Alafia River within a major phosphate
mining region makes water quality degradation from
industrial accidents a foremost concern (Cardinale
1998; Jackson 2005, 2006; Heinrich et al. 2015). Other
threats include reduction of natural aquatic vegetation
(Auffenberg 1978; Jackson 1992, 2005, 2006), loss or
removal of deadwood (basking structures; Lindeman
1999, 2013; Bodie 2001), disturbance from recreational
boat traffic (Moore and Seigel 2006), boat strikes
(Heinrich et al. 2012), and degradation of nesting habitat
by feral hogs (Sus scrofa; Lewis et al. 1994, Ditchkoff
and West 2007). Although collection of turtles for human
consumption has been a major threat elsewhere in
the past (Jackson 2005, 2006; Heinrich et al. 2010),
we found no evidence of such during the course of
the current study. Monitoring of existing and potential
threats to both aquatic and nesting habitats of P. c.
suwanniensis is critical to this turtle’s future conservation
and management (Jackson 2006, Heinrich et al. 2015).
Positive management actions beneficial to riverine turtle
populations include maintaining water quality that will
support diverse forage species, protecting basking sites
and preventing their removal, and restricting shoreline
hardening that can prevent access to nesting habitat.
On a positive note, more than half of the land (53.2-
65.2%) on both sides of riverine habitat that we
identified as occupied by the Suwannee Cooter is in some
form of conservation management. Turtles are not the
primary focus of conservation on any unit, however, so
education of agencies and staff managing these lands is
vital to assure that management activities are beneficial
and not detrimental to their turtle faunas. Additionally,
any opportunities to bring further undeveloped private
lands along this river system into conservation should
be pursued. Clearly, benefits to protecting this riverine
ecosystem would extend far beyond turtles.
The local community survey featuring distribution of
5,000 fliers in residential areas adjacent to the Alafia Riv-
er produced only 4 GPS points, all of which occurred in
areas where other locations of Suwannee Cooters were
identified during the basking survey from water. Of par-
ticular importance, however, was that the fliers yielded
submissions of photographs that documented the only
two confirmed nesting locations known to us. Although
this method was both labor-intensive and costly, it like-
ly enhanced public awareness of Suwannee Cooters and
the ecological importance of the river. In general, we
suggest that this method would best be reserved for sur-
veys where finding turtles is expected to be more difficult
and much less likely.
There were limitations to our study. Suwannee
Cooters, like many emydids, are ideal candidates for
basking surveys focused on presence and distribution
(Lindeman 1999, Enge and Wallace 2008). However,
weather conditions (e.g., air temperature, rain, and cloud
cover) can negatively affect basking activity and make
it difficult to identify species, quantify numbers, and
interpret results. That two other similar-looking species
of Pseudemys occur sympatrically in Gulf Coast river
systems within the Suwannee Cooter’s range presents
additional challenges. All of these factors can contribute
to varied results when repeating surveys of the same
area.
This paper reports on the first field study of P. c.
suwanniensis in a blackwater river system within the
southern portion of the subspecies’ range. Further
research on Suwannee Cooters in the Alafia River is
needed to better understand what appears to be the
largest population of this subspecies within its southern
range. Our study provides a platform for future research
and for conservation and management of a critical
population of this turtle. In this light, we initiated a mark-
recapture project in 2019.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Peter A. Meylan (Eckerd College), Jeanne Murphy
(Friends of Pinellas Master Naturalists), and Melanie
Riedinger-Whitmore and Thomas J. Whitmore (Universi-
ty of South Florida) assisted with volunteer recruitment.
We thank Trent Adamson, Janet Anschuetz, Andrew Ar-
nold, Jennifer Buchanan, Jim Caldwell, Macy Campbell,
Mary Anne Campbell, Jo Campo, Bruce Donald Colin,
Stephanie Coutant, Laurel Dodson, Logan Dodson, Terry
Dunham, Andrew Farren, R. David Goodwin, Rosemary
Jackson, Robert Krause, Marta Leach, Patty Moore, Kim
Munshower, Riley Munshower, Tom Paczkowski, Peter Ro-
bison, Carol Vanryn, Timmy Vanryn, Jessica A. Waltman,
Randy Wright, and Ray Wunderlich for assistance with
fieldwork. Ann Paul and Mark Rachal (Audubon Florida)
provided boat transportation, and Bryan Hughes (Alder-
man’s Ford Conservation Park) and Wayne Rowe (Lithia
Springs Conservation Park) kindly assisted with logisti-
cal concerns. Peter V. Lindeman (Edinboro University of
Pennsylvania) assisted with identification of a Graptemys
species. Amy Knight (Florida Natural Areas Inventory)
graciously assisted with GIS analysis of data and evalu-
ation of conservation lands, Nathan Pasco (Florida Nat-
ural Areas Inventory) produced the map showing loca-
tions of turtle sightings and conservation lands, David J.
DeWitt (Southwest Florida Water Management District)
provided a base map used to produce our map of Flor-
ida rivers, and Kate Dzikiewicz (Bruce Museum) assist-
ed with graphic design. This project was supported by
a grant from the Tampa Bay Estuary Program and fund-
ing from the Florida Turtle Conservation Trust. Research
was conducted under Florida Fish and Wildlife Conser-
vation Commission Scientific Collecting Permit Number
LSSC-15-00019, Florida Department of Environmental
Protection Permit Number 06011524, and authorization
from Hillsborough County Conservation & Environmental
Lands Management. This manuscript is dedicated to the
memory of David S. Lee, who kindly shared his knowl-
edge of the presence of Suwannee cooters in the Alafia
River in the 1960s.
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
27
LITERATURE CITED
Auffenberg, W. 1978. Threatened: Suwannee cooter,
Chrysemys concinna suwanniensis (Carr). Pp. 32–33.
In R.W. McDiarmid (Ed.), Amphibians and Reptiles,
Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida, Vol. 3. Universi-
ty Presses of Florida, Gainesville.
Ballou, A.R., A.C. Deyle, and D.R. Jackson. 2016. Geo-
graphic Distribution: Pseudemys concinna suwan-
niensis (Suwannee Cooter). Herpetological Review
47(2):253–254.
Bodie, J.R. 2001. Stream and riparian management for
freshwater turtles. Journal of Environmental Manage-
ment 62:443–455.
Cardinale, T. 1998. Mulberry Phosphates Inc. – December
1997 acid spill: Water quality impacts on Alafia River
and Tampa Bay. Water Management Division Report,
Environmental Protection Commission of Hillsborough
County, Florida. 79 pp.
Carr, A.F., Jr. 1935. The identity and status of two turtles
of the genus Pseudemys. Copeia 1935(3):147–148.
Carr, A.F., Jr. 1940. A contribution to the herpetology of
Florida. University of Florida Publication, Biological Sci-
ence Series 3(1):1–118.
Carr, A. 1952. Handbook of Turtles: The Turtles of the
United States, Canada, and Baja California. Comstock
Publishing Associates, Cornell University Press, Ithaca,
NY. 542 pp.
Carr, A. and C.J. Goin. 1955. Guide to the Reptiles, Am-
phibians and Fresh-water Fishes of Florida. University
of Florida Press, Gainesville. 341 pp.
Chapin, K.J. and P.A. Meylan. 2011. Turtle populations at
a heavily used recreational site: Ichetucknee Springs
State Park, Columbia County, Florida. Herpetological
Conservation and Biology 6(1):51−60.
Ditchkoff, S.S. and B.C. West. 2007. Ecology and
management of feral hogs. Human-Wildlife Conflicts
1(2):149–151.
Enge, K.M. and G.E. Wallace. 2008. Basking survey of
map turtles (Graptemys) in the Choctawhatchee and
Ochlockonee rivers, Florida and Alabama. Florida Sci-
entist 71(4):310–322.
Ernst, C.H. and J.E. Lovich. 2009. Turtles of the United
States and Canada. 2nd ed. The John Hopkins Universi-
ty Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827 pp.
Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. 2013.
A species action plan for the Suwannee Cooter Pseude-
mys concinna suwanniensis. Final draft. Tallahassee,
Florida. 46 pp. Web. https://myfwc.com/media/2150/
suwannee-cooter-species-action-plan-final-draft.pdf.
Accessed on 21 June 2020.
Florida Natural Areas Inventory. 2020. Florida Conser-
vation Lands, June 2020. Web. https://www.fnai.org/
webmaps/ConLandsMap/. Accessed on 27 September
2020.
Giovanetto, L.A. 1992. Population ecology and relative
abundance of sympatric freshwater turtles in the head-
waters of two spring-fed rivers in western peninsular
Florida. Ph.D. dissertation. Florida Institute of Technol-
ogy, Melbourne, Florida.
Heinrich, G.L., D.R. Jackson, T.J. Walsh, and D.S. Lee.
2015. Southernmost occurrence of the Suwannee
cooter, Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis (Testu-
dines: Emydidae). Journal of North American Herpe-
tology 2015(1):53–59.
Heinrich, G.L. and T.J. Walsh. 2016. Geographic Distri-
bution: Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis (Suwannee
Cooter). Herpetological Review 47(3):422.
Heinrich, G.L. and T.J. Walsh. 2019. Geographic Distri-
bution: Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis (Suwannee
Cooter). Herpetological Review 50(1):100–101.
Heinrich, G.L., T.J. Walsh, D.R. Jackson, and B.K. At-
kinson. 2012. Boat strikes: a threat to the Suwannee
cooter (Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis). Herpeto-
logical Conservation and Biology 7(3):349–357.
Heinrich, G.L., T.J. Walsh, N.M. Mattheus, J.A. Butler, and
P.C.H. Pritchard. 2010. Discovery of a modern-day mid-
den: continued exploitation of the Suwannee cooter,
Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis, and implications
for conservation. Florida Scientist 73(1):14–19.
Huestis, D.L. and P.A. Meylan. 2004. The turtles of Rain-
bow Run (Marion County, Florida): observations on the
genus Pseudemys. Southeastern Naturalist 3(4):595–
612.
Jackson, D.R. 1992. Species of Special Concern: River
cooter, Pseudemys concinna (Le Conte). Pp. 166–170.
In P.E. Moler (Ed.), Amphibians and Reptiles, Rare and
Endangered Biota of Florida, Vol. 3. University Press of
Florida, Gainesville.
Jackson, D.R. 1995. Systematics of the Pseudemys con-
cinna-floridana complex (Testudines: Emydidae): an
alternative interpretation. Chelonian Conservation and
Biology 1(4):329–333.
Jackson, D.R. 1997. Geographic Distribution: Pseudemys
concinna suwanniensis (Suwannee River Cooter). Her-
petological Review 28(2):94
Jackson, D.R. 2002. Survey of an important distribution-
al gap in the Florida range of the river cooter and other
freshwater turtles. Final Report. Florida Fish and Wild-
life Conservation Commission, Tallahassee. 27 pp.
Jackson, D.R. 2005. Florida Rivers and Turtles: An Inter-
dependence. Pp. 163–168. In Meshaka, W.E., Jr. and
K.J. Babbitt (Eds.), Amphibians and Reptiles: Status
and Conservation in Florida. Krieger Publishing Com-
pany, Malabar, Florida.
Jackson, D.R. 2006. Pseudemys concinna – River Cooter.
Pp. 325–337. In Meylan, P.A. (Ed.), Biology and Con-
servation of Florida Turtles. Chelonian Research Mono-
graphs No. 3. Chelonian Research Foundation, Lunen-
burg, Massachusetts.
Jackson, D.R. and R.N. Walker. 1997. Reproduction in
the Suwannee cooter, Pseudemys concinna suwan-
niensis. Bulletin of the Florida Museum Natural History
41(2):69–167.
Johnston, G.R., J.C. Mitchell, E.C. Munscher, G.A. Shem-
itz, P.L. Butt, S. Cole, and T. Hootman. 2020. Temporal
variation in a turtle assemblage inhabiting a Florida
spring-fed river. Southeastern Naturalist 19(2):271–
282.
Johnston, G.R., J.C. Mitchell, E. Suarez, T. Morris, G.A.
Shemitz, P.L. Butt, and R.L. Knight. 2016. The Santa
Fe River in northern Florida: effect of habitat hetero-
geneity on turtle populations. Bulletin of the Florida
Museum of Natural History 54(5):69–103.
Kornilev, Y.V., C.K. Dodd, Jr., and G.R. Johnston. 2010.
Linear home range, movement, and spatial distribution
of the Suwannee cooter (Pseudemys concinna suwan-
niensis) in a blackwater river. Chelonian Conservation
and Biology 9(2):196–204.
Krysko, K.L., K.M. Enge, and P.E. Moler (Eds.). 2019.
Amphibians and Reptiles of Florida. University of Flori-
da Press, Gainesville. 706 pp.
Lewis, T.E., G.O. Bailey, and H.L. Edmiston. 1994. Effects
of predator control on sea turtle nest success on the
barrier islands of Apalachicola Bay. Pp. 242–243. In K.A.
Journal of North American Herpetology 2021(1): 19-28
28
Bjorndal, A.B. Bolten, D.A. Johnson, and P.J. Eliazar
(Compilers), Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual
Symposium on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation.
NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-351.
Lindeman, P.V. 1999. Surveys of basking map turtles
Graptemys spp. in three river drainages and the im-
portance of deadwood abundance. Biological Conser-
vation 88(1999):33–42.
Lindeman, P.V. 2013. The Map Turtle and Sawback At-
las: Ecology, Evolution, Distribution, and Conservation.
University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. 460 pp.
Marchand, L.J. 1942. A contribution to a knowledge of
the natural history of certain freshwater turtles. Mas-
ter’s thesis. University of Florida, Gainesville.
Meylan, P.A. (Ed.). 2006. Biology and Conservation of
Florida Turtles. Chelonian Research Monographs No.
3, Chelonian Research Foundation, Lunenburg, Massa-
chusetts. 376 pp.
Meylan, P.A., C.A. Stevens, M.E. Barnwell, and E.D.
Dohm. 1992. Observations on the turtle community
of Rainbow Run, Marion Co., Florida. Florida Scientist
55(4):219–228.
Moore, M.J.C. and R.A. Seigel. 2006. No place to nest
or bask: Effects of human disturbance on the nest-
ing and basking habits of yellow-blotched map turtles
(Graptemys flavimaculata). Biological Conservation
130(2006):386–393.
Munscher, E.C., A.D. Walde, E.M. Walton, N. Salvatico,
B.P. Butterfield, W. Osborne, C. McAvinchey, and J.B.
Hauge. 2017. Turtle survey of Weeki Wachee Springs
State Park reveals more than mermaids. Herpetology
Notes 10:601–609.
Parsons. 2008. Alderman’s Ford Park land management
and land use plan. Prepared for Hillsborough County
Parks, Recreation and Conservation Department, Tam-
pa, Florida. 40 pp.
Pope, C.H. 1939. Turtles of the United States & Canada.
Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 343 + v pp.
Scott, T.M., G.H. Means, R.P. Meegan, R.C. Means, S.B.
Upchurch, R.E. Copeland, J. Jones, T. Roberts, and A.
Willet. 2004. Springs of Florida. Florida Geological Sur-
vey Bulletin No. 66, Florida Department of Environ-
mental Protection, Division of Resource Assessment
and Management, Tallahassee. 377 pp.
Seidel, M.E. 1981. A taxonomic analysis of pseudemyd
turtles (Testudines: Emydidae) from the New River,
and phenetic relationships in the subgenus Pseude-
mys. Brimleyana 6:25–44.
Seidel, M.E. 1994. Morphometric analysis and taxonomy
of cooter and red-bellied turtles in the North American
genus Pseudemys (Emydidae). Chelonian Conserva-
tion and Biology 1(2):117–130.
Seidel, M.E. and M.J. Dreslik. 1996. Pseudemys concinna
(LeConte), River Cooter. Catalogue of American Am-
phibians and Reptiles 626.1–626.12. Society for the
Study of Amphibians and Reptiles.
Stoker, Y.E., V.A. Levesque, and W.M. Woodham. 1996.
The effect of discharge and water quality of the Alafia
River, Hillsborough River, and the Tampa Bypass Canal
on nutrient loading to Hillsborough Bay, Florida. U.S.
Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Re-
port 95-4107, Tallahassee, Florida. 69 pp.
Turtle Taxonomy Working Group [Rhodin, A.G.J., J.B.
Iverson, R. Bour, U. Fritz, A. Georges, H.B. Shaffer,
and P.P. van Dijk]. 2017. Turtles of the World: Annotat-
ed Checklist and Atlas of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distri-
bution, and Conservation Status (8th edition). In Rho-
din, A.G.J., J.B. Iverson, P.P. van Dijk, R.A. Saumure,
K.A. Buhlmann, P.C.H. Pritchard, and R.A. Mittermei-
er (Eds.), Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles
and Tortoises: A Compilation Project of the IUCN/SSC
Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group. Che-
lonian Research Monographs 7:1–292. doi: 10.3854/
crm.7.checklist.atlas.v8.2017. Chelonian Research
Foundation, Lunenburg, Massachusetts.
Walsh, T.J. and G.L. Heinrich. 2015. Geographic Distri-
bution: Pseudemys suwanniensis (Suwannee Cooter).
Herpetological Review 46(3):382.
Walsh, T.J. and G.L. Heinrich. 2016. Geographic Distri-
bution: Pseudemys concinna suwanniensis (Suwannee
Cooter). Herpetological Review 47(3):422–423.
Ward, J.P. 1984. Relationships of chrysemyd turtles of
North America (Testudines: Emydidae). Special Publi-
cations, The Museum, Texas Tech University 21:1–50.