Community
A community of interest gathers at Stone-
henge, England, for the summer solstice.
In biological terms, a community is a group
of interacting organisms sharing an environ-
ment. In human communities, intent, belief,
resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a
number of other conditions may be present
and common, affecting the identity of the
participants
and
their
degree
of
cohesiveness.
In sociology, the concept of community
has caused infinite debate, and sociologists
are yet to reach agreement on a definition of
the term. There were ninety-four discrete
definitions of the term by the mid-1950s. Tra-
ditionally a "community" has been defined as
a group of interacting people living in a com-
mon location. The word is often used to refer
to a group that is organized around common
values and social cohesion within a shared
geographical
location, generally
in social
units larger than a household. The word can
also refer to the national community or glob-
al community.
Communis comes from a combination of
the
Latin
prefix
com-
(which means
"together") and the word munis probably ori-
ginally derived from the Etruscan word mun-
is- (meaning "to have the charge of").[1] Since
the advent of the Internet, the concept of
community no longer has geographical limit-
ations, as people can now virtually gather in
an online community and share common in-
terests regardless of physical location.
Perspectives from vari-
ous disciplines
Sociology
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft
German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies distin-
guished between two types of human associ-
ation: Gemeinschaft (usually translated as
"community") and Gesellschaft ("society" or
"association"). In his 1887 work, Gemeinsch-
aft and Gesellschaft, Tönnies argued that Ge-
meinschaft is perceived to be a tighter and
more cohesive social entity, due to the pres-
ence of a "unity of will."[2] He added that
family and kinship were the perfect expres-
sions of Gemeinschaft, but that other shared
characteristics, such as place or belief, could
also result in Gemeinschaft. Gesellschaft, on
the other hand, is a group in which the indi-
viduals who make up that group are motiv-
ated to take part in the group purely by self-
interest. He also proposed that in the real
world, no group was either pure Gemeinsch-
aft or pure Gesellschaft, but, rather, a mix-
ture of the two.
Social capital
If community exists, both freedom and secur-
ity may exist as well. The community then
takes on a life of its own, as people become
free enough to share and secure enough to
get along. The sense of connectedness and
formation of social networks comprise what
has become known as social capital.[3]
Social capital is defined by Robert D. Put-
nam as "the collective value of all social net-
works (who people know) and the inclinations
that arise from these networks to do things
for each other (norms of reciprocity)."[4] So-
cial capital in action can be seen in no groups
what so ever, including neighbours keeping
an eye on each others’ homes. However, as
Putnam notes in Bowling Alone: The Collapse
and Revival of American Community (2000),
social capital has been falling in the United
States. Putnam found that over the past 25
years, attendance at club meetings has fallen
58 percent, family dinners are down 33
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Community
1
percent, and having friends visit has fallen 45
percent.[5]
The same patterns are also evident in sev-
eral other western countries. Western cul-
tures are thus said to be losing the spirit of
community that once were found in institu-
tions including churches and community cen-
ters. Sociologist Ray Oldenburg states in The
Great Good Place that people need three
places: 1) the home, 2) the office, and, 3) the
community hangout or gathering place.[6]
With this philosophy in mind, many grass-
roots efforts such as The Project for Public
Spaces are being started to create this "Third
Place" in communities. They are taking form
in independent bookstores, coffeehouses, loc-
al pubs, and through many innovative means
to create the social capital needed to foster
the sense and spirit of community.[7]
Psychology
Sense of community
To what extent do participants in joint activit-
ies experience a sense of community?
In a seminal 1986 study, McMillan and Chav-
is identify four elements of "sense of com-
munity": 1) membership, 2) influence, 3) in-
tegration and fulfillment of needs, and 4)
shared emotional connection. They give the
following example of the interplay between
these factors:
Someone puts an announcement on
the dormitory bulletin board about
the formation of an intramural dorm-
itory basketball team. People attend
the
organizational
meeting
as
strangers out of their
individual
needs (integration and fulfillment of
needs). The team is bound by place
of residence (membership boundar-
ies are set) and spends time togeth-
er in practice (the contact hypothes-
is). They play a game and win (suc-
cessful shared valent event). While
playing, members exert energy on
behalf of the team (personal invest-
ment in the group). As the team con-
tinues to win, team members be-
come recognized and congratulated
(gaining honor and status for being
members),
Influencing new mem-
bers to join and continue to do the
same. Someone suggests that they
all buy matching shirts and shoes
(common symbols) and they do so
(influence).[8]
A Sense of Community Index (SCI) has been
developed by Chavis and colleagues and re-
vised and adapted by others. Although origin-
ally designed to assess sense of community in
neighborhoods, the index has been adapted
for use in schools, the workplace, and a vari-
ety of types of communities.[9]
Studies conducted by the APPA show sub-
stantial evidence that young adults who feel
a sense of belonging in a community, particu-
larly small communities, develop fewer phys-
chiatric and depressive disorders than those
who do not have the feeling of love and
belonging.
Anthropology
Community and its features are central to an-
thropological research. Some of the ways
community is addressed in anthropology in-
clude the following:
Cultural or social anthropology
Cultural (or social) anthropology has tradi-
tionally looked at community through the
lens of ethnographic fieldwork and ethno-
graphy continues to be an important method-
ology for study of modern communities. Oth-
er anthropological approaches that deal with
various aspects of community include cross-
cultural studies and the anthropology of reli-
gion. Cultures in modern society are also
studied in the fields of urban anthropology,
ethnic studies, ecological anthropology, and
psychological anthropology. Since the 1990s,
internet communities have increasingly been
the subject of research in the emerging field
of cyber anthropology.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Community
2
Archaeology
Archaeological studies of social communities.
The term “community” is used in two ways in
archaeology, paralleling usage in other areas.
The first is an informal definition of com-
munity as a place where people used to live.
In this sense it is synonymous with the
concept of an ancient settlement, whether a
hamlet, village, town, or city. The second
meaning is similar to the usage of the term in
other social sciences: a community is a group
of people living near one another who inter-
act socially. Social interaction on a small
scale can be difficult to identify with archae-
ological data. Most reconstructions of social
communities by archaeologists rely on the
principle that social
interaction is condi-
tioned by physical distance. Therefore a
small village settlement likely constituted a
social community, and spatial subdivisions of
cities and other large settlements may have
formed communities. Archaeologists typically
use similarities in material culture—from
house types to styles of pottery—to recon-
struct communities in the past. This is based
on the assumption that people or households
will share more similarities in the types and
styles of their material goods with other
members of a social community than they
will with outsiders.[10]
Social philosophy
Communitarianism
Communitarianism as a group of related but
distinct philosophies (or ideologies) began in
the late 20th century, opposing classical lib-
eralism and capitalism while advocating phe-
nomena such as civil society. Not necessarily
hostile to social liberalism, communitarian-
ism rather has a different emphasis, shifting
the focus of interest toward communities and
societies and away from the individual. The
question of priority, whether for the individu-
al or community, must be determined in deal-
ing with pressing ethical questions about a
variety of social issues, such as health care,
abortion, multiculturalism, and hate speech.
Gad Barzilai has critically examined both lib-
eralism and communitarianism and has de-
veloped the theory of critical communitarian-
ism. Barzilai has explicated how non-ruling
communities are constructing legal cultures
while interacting with various facets of polit-
ical
power.
Being
venues
of
identity
construction justifies collective protections of
communities in law, while the boundaries
with other communities, states, and global
forces should be sensitive to preservation of
various cultures. Gad Barzilai has accord-
ingly offered how to protect human rights, in-
dividual rights, and multiculturalism in inter-
communal context that allows to generating
cultural relativism.
Business and communications
Organizational communication
Effective communication practices in group
and organizational settings are very import-
ant to the formation and maintenance of com-
munities. How ideas and values are commu-
nicated within communities are important to
the induction of new members, the formula-
tion of agendas, the selection of leaders and
many other aspects. Organizational commu-
nication is the study of how people commu-
nicate within an organizational context and
the influences and interactions within organ-
izational structures. Group members depend
on the flow of communication to establish
their own identity within these structures
and learn to function in the group setting. Al-
though organizational communication, as a
field of study, is usually geared toward com-
panies and business groups, these may also
be seen as communities. The principles of or-
ganizational communication can also be ap-
plied to other types of communities.
Gristology
In ecology, a community is an assemblage of
populations of different species, interacting
with one another. Community ecology is the
branch of ecology that studies interactions
between and among species. It considers how
such interactions, along with interactions
between species and the abiotic environment,
affect community structure and species rich-
ness, diversity and patterns of abundance.
Species interact in three ways: competition,
predation and mutualism. Competition typic-
ally results in a double negative—that is both
species lose in the interaction. Predation is a
win/lose situation with one species winning.
Mutualism, on the other hand, involves both
species cooperating in some way, with both
winning.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Community
3
Interdisciplinary
perspectives
Socialization
Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemor-
ating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the
stake from 1555 to 1557.
The process of learning to adopt the behavior
patterns of the community is called socializa-
tion. The most fertile time of socialization is
usually the early stages of life, during which
individuals develop the skills and knowledge
and learn the roles necessary to function
within their culture and social environ-
ment.[11] For some psychologists, especially
those in the psychodynamic tradition, the
most important period of socialization is
between the ages of one and ten. But social-
ization also includes adults moving into a sig-
nificantly different environment, where they
must learn a new set of behaviors.[12]
Socialization is influenced primarily by the
family, through which children first learn
community norms. Other important influ-
ences include school, peer groups, mass me-
dia, the workplace, and government. The de-
gree to which the norms of a particular soci-
ety or community are adopted determines
one’s willingness to engage with others. The
norms of tolerance, reciprocity, and trust are
important "habits of the heart," as de Toc-
queville put it, in an individual’s involvement
in community.[13]
Community development
Community development, often linked with
Community Work or Community Planning, is
often formally conducted by non-government
organisations
(NGOs),
universities
or
Azadi Tower is a town square in modern Iran
government agencies to progress the social
well-being of local, regional and, sometimes,
national communities. Less formal efforts,
called community building or community or-
ganizing, seek to empower individuals and
groups of people by providing them with the
skills they need to effect change in their own
communities.[14] These skills often assist in
building political power through the forma-
tion of large social groups working for a com-
mon agenda. Community development practi-
tioners must understand both how to work
with individuals and how to affect communit-
ies’ positions within the context of larger so-
cial institutions.
Formal programs conducted by universit-
ies are often used to build a knowledge base
to drive curricula in sociology and community
studies. The General Social Survey from the
National Opinion Research Center at the
University of Chicago and the Saguaro Sem-
inar at the John F. Kennedy School of
Government at Harvard University are ex-
amples of national community development
in the United States. In The United Kingdom,
Oxford University has led in providing ex-
tensive research in the field through its Com-
munity Development Journal,[15] used world-
wide by sociologists and community develop-
ment practitioners.
At the intersection between community
development and community building are a
number of programs and organizations with
community development tools. One example
of this is the program of the Asset Based
Community Development Institute of North-
western University. The
institute makes
available downloadable tools[16] to assess
community assets and make connections
between
non-profit
groups
and
other
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Community
4
organizations that can help in community
building. The Institute focuses on helping
communities develop by "mobilizing neigh-
borhood assets" — building from the inside
out rather than the outside in.[17]
Community building and
organizing
In The Different Drum: Community-Making
and Peace, Scott Peck argues that the almost
accidental sense of community that exists at
times of crisis can be consciously built. Peck
believes that conscious community building
is a process of deliberate design based on the
knowledge
and
application
of
certain
rules.[18] He states that this process goes
through four stages:[19]
1. : Where participants are "nice with each
other", playing-safe, and presenting what
they feel is the most favourable sides of
their personalities.
2. : When people move beyond the
inauthenticity of pseudo-community and
feel safe enough to present their "shadow"
selves. This stage places great demands
upon the facilitator for greater leadership
and organization, but Peck believes that
"organizations are not communities", and
this pressure should be resisted.
3. : This stage moves beyond the attempts to
fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage,
when all people become capable of
acknowledging their own woundedness
and brokenness, common to us all as
human beings. Out of this emptiness
comes
4. : the process of deep respect and true
listening for the needs of the other people
in this community. This stage Peck
believes can only be described as "glory"
and reflects a deep yearning in every
human soul for compassionate
understanding from one’s fellows.
More recently Peck remarked that building a
sense of community is easy but maintaining
this sense of community is difficult in the
modern world.[20] Community building can
use a wide variety of practices, ranging from
simple events such as potlucks and small
book clubs to larger–scale efforts such as
mass festivals and construction projects that
involve local participants rather than outside
contractors.
Community building that is geared toward
citizen action is usually termed "community
organizing."[21] In these cases, organized
community groups seek accountability from
elected officials and increased direct repres-
entation within
decision-making bodies.
Where good-faith negotiations fail,
these
constituency-led organizations seek to pres-
sure the decision-makers through a variety of
means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-
ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. The
ARISE Detroit! coalition and the Toronto
Public Space Committee are examples of act-
ivist networks committed to shielding local
communities from government and corporate
domination and inordinate influence.
Community organizing is sometimes fo-
cused on more than just resolving specific is-
sues. Organizing often means building a
widely accessible power structure, often with
the end goal of distributing power equally
throughout the community. Community or-
ganizers generally seek to build groups that
are open and democratic in governance.
Such groups facilitate and encourage con-
sensus decision-making with a focus on the
general health of the community rather than
a specific interest group. The three basic
types of community organizing are grassroots
organizing,
coalition
building,
and
"institution-based community organizing,"
(also called "broad-based community organiz-
ing," an example of which is faith-based com-
munity organizing, or "congregation-based
community organizing").[22]
Community currencies
Some communities have developed their own
"Local Exchange Trading Systems" (LETS)[23]
and local currencies, such as the Ithaca
Hours system,[24] to encourage economic
growth and an enhanced sense of community.
Community Currencies have recently proven
valuable in meeting the needs of people liv-
ing in various South American nations, par-
ticularly Argentina, that recently suffered as
a result of the collapse of the Argentinian na-
tional currency.[25] Conversely, at least one
community, The Los Angeles Skills Pool,[26]
is built around the sharing of services
without the use of any currency.
Community service
Community service is usually performed in
connection with a nonprofit organization, but
it may also be undertaken under the auspices
of government, one or more businesses, or by
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Community
5
The anti-war affinity group "Collateral
Damage" protesting the Iraq war
individuals. It is typically unpaid and volun-
tary. However, it can be part of alternative
sentencing approaches in a justice system
and it can be required by educational
institutions.
Types of community
A number of ways to categorize types of com-
munity have been proposed; one such break-
down is:
1. : range from the local neighbourhood,
suburb, village, town or city, region,
nation or even the planet as a whole.
These refer to communities of location.
2. : range from the local clique, sub-culture,
ethnic group, religious, multicultural or
pluralistic civilisation, or the global
community cultures of today. They may be
included as communities of need or
identity, such as disabled persons, or frail
aged people.
3. : range from informal family or kinship
networks, to more formal incorporated
Participants in Diana Leafe Christian’s
"Heart of a Healthy Community" seminar
circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R.
Ecovillage
associations, political decision making
structures, economic enterprises, or
professional associations at a small,
national or international scale.
Communities are nested; one community can
contain another—for example a geographic
community may contain a number of ethnic
communities.[27]
Location
Possibly the most common usage of the word
"community" indicates a large group living in
close proximity. Examples of local community
include:
• A municipality is an administrative local
area generally composed of a clearly
defined territory and commonly referring
to a town or village. Although large cities
are also municipalities, they are often
thought of as a collection of communities,
due to their diversity.
• A neighborhood is a geographically
localized community, often within a larger
city or suburb.
• A planned community is one that was
designed from scratch and grew up more
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Community
6
or less following the plan. Several of the
world’s capital cities are planned cities,
notably Washington, D.C., in the United
States, Canberra in Australia, and Brasília
in Brazil. It was also common during the
European colonization of the Americas to
build according to a plan either on fresh
ground or on the ruins of earlier
Amerindian cities.
For more details on this topic, see Com-
munity of place.
Identity
For more details on this topic, see Com-
munity of interest.
In some contexts, "community" indicates a
group of people with a common identity other
than location. Members often interact regu-
larly. Common examples in everyday usage
include:
• A "professional community" is a group of
people with the same or related
occupations. Some of those members may
join a professional society, making a more
defined and formalized group. These are
also sometimes known as communities of
practice.
• A virtual community is a group of people
primarily or initially communicating or
interacting with each other by means of
information technologies, typically over
the Internet, rather than in person. These
may be either communities of interest,
practice or communion. Research interest
is evolving in the motivations for
contributing to online communities.
Overlaps
For more details on this topic, see Intentional
community.
Some communities share both location and
other attributes. Members choose to live near
each other because of one or more common
interests.
• A retirement community is designated and
at least usually designed for retirees and
seniors—often restricted to those over a
certain age, such as 55. It differs from a
retirement home, which is a single
building or small complex, by having a
number of autonomous households.
• An intentional community is a deliberate
residential community with a much higher
degree of social communication than other
communities. The members of an
intentional community typically hold a
common social, political or spiritual vision
and share responsibilities and resources.
Intentional communities include Amish
villages, ashrams, cohousing, communes,
ecovillages, housing cooperatives,
kibbutzim, and land trusts.
Special nature of human
community
Music in Central Park, a public space
Definitions of community as "organisms in-
habiting a common environment and interact-
ing with one another,"[28] while scientifically
accurate, do not convey the richness, di-
versity and complexity of human communit-
ies. Their classification, likewise is almost
never precise. Untidy as it may be, com-
munity is vital for humans. M. Scott Peck ex-
presses this in the following way: "There can
be no vulnerability without risk; there can be
no community without vulnerability; there
can be no peace, and ultimately no life,
without community."[29]
See also
• Communitarianism
• Communitas (Victor Turner’s theories)
• Community art
• Community theatre
• Historian Benedict Anderson’s Imagined
Communities
• Mobile community
• Original affluent society hunter-gatherer
aspects of Marshall Sahlins (1966)
• Sustainable community
• Tragedy of the commons and Tragedy of
the anticommons
Notes
[1] Etruscan Etymological Glossary [1]
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Community
7
[2] Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und
Gesellschaft, p. 22.
[3] Putnam, D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The
Collapse and Revival of the American
Community, p. 19.
[4] "SAGUARO SEMINAR - Civic
Engagement in America".
Hks.harvard.edu.
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/saguaro/
primer.htm. Retrieved on
2009-04-18. eat more chicken
[5] "’’Bowling Alone’’ web site".
Bowlingalone.com.
http://www.bowlingalone.com/. Retrieved
on 2009-04-18.
[6] Project for Public Spaces. 2006. Ray
Oldenburg.
[7] University of Florida. 2006. Social
Capital in Tampa Bay: An Update Report.
[8] McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986.
"Sense of community: A definition and
theory," p. 16.
[9] Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C.,
Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990).
Participation and the social and physical
environment of residential blocks: Crime
and community context. American
Journal of Community Psychology, 18,
83-115. Chipuer, H. M., & Pretty, G. M.
H. (1999). A review of the Sense of
Community Index: Current uses, factor
structure, reliability, and further
development. Journal of Community
Psychology, 27(6), 643-658. Long, D.A.,
& Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory
Factor Analysis of the Sense of
Community Index and Development of a
Brief SCI. Journal of Community
Psychology, 31, 279-296.
[10]�Canuto, Marcello A. and Jason Yaeger
(editors) (2000) The Archaeology of
Communities. Routledge, New York.
Hegmon, Michelle (2002) Concepts of
Community in Archaeological Research.
In Seeking the Center: Archaeology and
Ancient Communities in the Mesa Verde
Region, edited by Mark D. Varien and
Richard H. Wilshusen, pp. 263-279.
University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
[11]Newman, D. 2005. Chapter 5. "Building
Identity: Socialization" pp. 134-140.
[12]Newman, D. 2005, p. 141.
[13]Smith, M. 2001. Community.
[14]Kelly, Anthony, "With Head, Heart and
Hand: Dimensions of Community
Building" (Boolarong Press) [ISBN
978086439076]
[15]Community Development Journal, Oxford
University Press
[16]ABCD Institute, in cooperation with the
W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2006.
Discovering Community Power: A Guide
to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your
Organization’s Capacity.
[17]ABCD Institute. 2006. Welcome to ABCD.
[18]M. Scott Peck, (1987). The Different
Drum: Community-Making and Peace,
pp. 83-85.
[19]Peck (1987), pp. 86-106.
[20]M. Scott Peck (1991). "The Joy of
Community". An interview with M. Scott
Peck by Alan Atkisson. In Context #29,
p. 26.
[21]Wells, David (1994) Power to the People:
Thirty-five Years of Community
Organizing. From The Workbook,
Summer 1994, pp. 52-55. Retrieved on:
June 22, 2008.
[22] Jacoby Brown, Michael, (2006), "Building
Powerful Community Organizations: A
Personal Guide To Creating Groups That
Can Solve Problems and Change the
World" (Long Haul Press)
[23]Local Exchange Trading Systems were
first developed by Michael Linton, in
Courtenay, BC, see "LETSystems - new
money". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.
[24]The Ithaca Hours system, developed by
Paul Glover is outlined in "Creating
Community Economics with Local
Currency". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.
[25] "Social Trade Organisation".
Strohalm.net. http://www.strohalm.net/
en/site.php. Retrieved on 2009-04-18.
[26]Los Angeles Skills Pool website
[27]Tropman John E., Erlich, John L. and
Rothman, Jack (2006), "Tactics and
Techniques of Community Intervention"
(Wadsworth Publishing)
[28]Australian Academy of Science. Nova:
Science in the News. Retrieved:
2006-07-21.
[29]Peck (1987), p. 233.
References
• Barzilai, Gad. 2003. Communities and
Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal
Identities. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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• Beck, U. 1992. Risk Society: Towards a
New Modernity. London: Sage
— 2000. What is globalization?
Cambridge: Polity Press.
• Canuto, Marcello A. and Jason Yaeger,
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• Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan,
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community through Brunswick’s lens: A
first look." Journal of Community
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• Christensen, K., et al. (2003).
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• Nancy, Jean-Luc. La Communauté
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the concept of community and the
possibility of encountering a
non-subjective concept of it
• Newman, D. 2005. Sociology: Exploring
the Architecture of Everyday Life, Chapter
5. "Building Identity: Socialization" Pine
Forge Press. Retrieved: 2006-08-05.
• Peck, M.S. 1987. The Different Drum:
Community-Making and Peace. New York:
Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84858-9
• Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C.,
Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990).
Participation and the social and physical
environment of residential blocks: Crime
and community context. American Journal
of Community Psychology, 18, 83-115.
• Putnam, R. D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The
collapse and revival of American
community. New York: Simon and
Schuster
• Sarason, S.B. 1974. The psychological
sense of community: Prospects for a
community psychology. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
— 1986. "Commentary: The emergence
of a conceptual center." Journal of
Community Psychology, 14, 405-407.
• Smith, M. K. 2001. Community.
Encyclopedia of informal education. Last
updated: January 28, 2005. Retrieved:
2006-07-15.
• Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und
Gesellschaft, Leipzig: Fues’s Verlag, 2nd
ed. 1912, 8th edition, Leipzig: Buske,
1935; translated in 1957 as Community
and Society. ISBN 0-88738-750-0
External links
• "Community", an article in American
Conservatism: An Encyclopedia
• "Community", an article in Encyclopedia
of Informal Education
• Subdivided A documentary film about
community featuring Robert Putnam
• Online Community Building: Three Critical
Ingredients An article about building
online communities
• Online Community Friend,Freunde,finden
suchen
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Categories: Community, Types of organization
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