Glossary of Commercial Real Estate Terms
From the REALTORS® Commercial Alliance
12/2005
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1
-- A
Absorption
The amount of inventory or units of a specific commercial property type that become
occupied during a specified time period (usually a year) in a given market, typically reported
as the absorption rate.

Accumulated cost recovery
Total cost recovery deductions taken throughout the holding period of a property.

Active income
Income from salary, wages, tips, commissions, and activities in which the taxpayer
materially participates. Also see passive income.

Add-on factor
The ratio of rentable to useable square feet. Also known as the load factor and the
rentable-to-useable ratio. Also see efficiency percentage. Formula:
Add-on factor =Rentable square feet


Useable square feet

Add value
Fourth stage of four-stage transaction management process pertaining to a transaction
manager’s planning, effort, and continual contact with key decision-makers, investors, and
users, as well as contact with ancillary professionals. This ongoing process allows for
feedback, establishes a network for problem solving, provides a means to offer additional
services to the client, and enhances the transaction manager’s preparedness for the next
assignment.

Adjusted basis
The original cost basis of a property plus capital improvements, less total accumulated cost
recovery deductions, and partial sales taken during the holding period.

ADS
See annual debt service.

Agglomeration economies
Cost reductions or savings that come about from efficiency gains associated with the
concentration or clustering of firms/producers or economic activities and the formation of a
localized production network.

Amortization
The repayment of loan principal through equal payments over a designated period of time
consisting of both principal and interest.

Annual debt service (ADS)
The total amount of principal and interest to be paid each year to satisfy the obligations of a
loan contract.

Annual percentage rate (APR)
The true annual interest rate payable for a loan in one year taking account of all charges
made to the borrower, including compound interest, discount points, commitment fees,
mortgage insurance premiums. It also takes into account the time at which the principal is
repaid (especially when payments of principal are made in installments throughout the year,
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Annual percentage rate (APR) continued
but interest is charged at the beginning of the year), but not the actual expenses incurred
by the lender in making the loan and recharged to the borrower. (Encyclopedia of Real
Estate Terms 2nd Edition, Damien Abbott)

Annuity
Regular fixed payments or receipts over a designated period of time.
Appreciation
An investment’s increase in value.

Appreciation potential
The possibility or probability that a real estate investment will increase in value during the
holding period.

Assessed value
The value of real property established by the tax assessor for the purpose of levying real
estate taxes.

Average annual effective rate
The average annual effective rent divided by the square footage.

Average annual effective rent
The tenant’s total effective rent divided by the lease term.

Averaging method
A simple technique used to forecast next period's/year's vacancy rate by averaging previous
years' vacancy rates; especially effective where vacancy rates have remained relatively flat
or show little variability over time.



-- B
Balloon payment
The final payment of the balance due on a partially amortized loan.
Base (in lease terminology)
A face, quoted, dollar amount representing the rate or rent in dollars per square foot per
year and typically referred to as the base rate.
Base rent
The minimum rent due to the landlord. Typically, it is a fixed amount. This is a face,
quoted, contract amount of periodic rent. The annual base rate is the amount upon which
escalations are calculated.
Basic employment
Employment that is considered to be export-oriented or export-driven, associated with
activities that generate income from the sales of products and services in markets outside
the local economy.
Basis
The total amount paid for a property, including equity capital and the amount of debt
incurred.
Before-tax investment value
The sum of the present values of the mortgagor and mortgagee of property.
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3


Break-even point
The stage at which an investment produces an income that is just sufficient to cover
recurring expenditure. For an investment in real property, the point at which gross income
is equal to normal operating expenses, including debt service (the stage at which the next
cash flow becomes positive). Also known as the default point. (Encyclopedia of Real Estate
Terms 2nd Edition, Damien Abbott)
Breakpoint
The sales threshold over which percentage rent is due. It is calculated by dividing the
annual base rent by the negotiated percentage applied to the tenant’s gross sales.
Business risk
The uncertainty associated with the possible profit outcomes of a business venture.
Buy/rent threshold
The point at which there is a recognizable shift of expenditure allocations away from owner-
occupied housing and to the rental housing market (or vice-versa) as a result of changing
market conditions.



-- C
CAM
See common area maintenance.

CAM cap
The maximum amount for which the tenant pays its share of common area maintenance
costs. The owner pays for any CAM expenses exceeding that amount.

Cap rate
See capitalization rate.

Capital expenditures
Property improvements that cannot be expensed as a current operating expense for tax
purposes. Examples include a new roof, tenant improvements, or a parking lot—such items
are added to the basis of the property and then can be depreciated over the holding period.
Distinguished from cash outflows for expense items such as new paint or plumbing repairs
(operating expenses) that can be expensed in the year they occur. Also see operating
expenses.

Capital gain
Taxable income derived from the sale of a capital asset. It is equal to the sales price less
the cost of sale, adjusted basis, suspended losses, excess cost recovery, and recapture of
straight-line cost recovery.

Capital market
The supply and demand for resources to invest in real estate and other investments.
Capitalization rate
A percentage that relates the value of an income-producing property to its future income,
expressed as net operating income divided by purchase price. Also referred to as cap rate.

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4


Capital tax
Any tax on a change in capital value (including capital gains tax, estate tax, or inheritance
tax); as distinguished from a tax on income. (Encyclopedia of Real Estate Terms 2nd
Edition, Damien Abbott)
Cash flow
The net cash received in any period, taking into account net operating income, debt service,
capital expenses, loan proceeds, sale revenues, and any other sources and uses of cash.

Cash flow after tax/es (CFAT)
For properties, it is the result of first calculating the net operating income, less mortgage
and construction loan interest, less cost recovery for improvements and personal property,
less amortization of loan points and leasing commissions to arrive at real estate taxable
income. Next, real estate taxable income is multiplied by the applicable marginal tax rate
to result in the tax liability (savings). Then, from the net operating income, annual debt
service is subtracted to equal the cash flow before taxes (CFBT). Finally, the cash flow after
taxes (CFAT) is calculated from the CFBT, less the tax liability (savings), plus investment
tax credit. The Cash Flow Analysis Worksheet can be used to calculate a property’s gross
operating income, net operating income, real estate taxable income and tax liability or
(savings), CFBT, and CFAT.

Net operating income
– Interest
– Cost recovery
– Amortization of loan points
Real Estate taxable income
× Investor’s marginal tax rate
Tax liability (savings)

Then
Net operating income
– Annual debt service
Cash flow before taxes
– Tax liability (savings)
Cash flow after taxes


Cash flow before tax/es (CFBT)
For properties, it is the result of calculating the effective rental income, plus other income
not affected by vacancy, less total operating expenses, less annual debt service, funded
reserves, leasing commissions, and capital additions. The Annual Property Operating Data
form can be used to calculate a property’s effective rental income, gross operating income,
total operating expenses, net operating income, and cash flow before taxes.
Cash flow model
The framework used to determine the cash flow from operations and the cash proceeds
from sale.
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5


Cash-on-cash rate
A return measure that is calculated as cash flow before taxes divided by the initial equity
investment.
Cash proceeds from sale
The sales price less sales costs, mortgage balance, and tax liability on sale. Also known as
sales proceeds after tax.
Central place theory
A location theory that accounts for the size, distribution, and organization of settlements,
places, market areas, and establishments in a competitive and interdependent urban
system, to explain differences in the locational tendencies and preferences of businesses as
they seek to maximize market accessibility, sales, and profits.
CFAT
See cash flow after tax.

CFBT
See cash flow before tax.

City
An urban settlement or system containing various functions, agents, institutions, and
components which interact and work together to satisfy the wants and needs of its
inhabitants (as well as a portion of the population in surrounding rural areas).

Class life
The useful economic life of an asset set by the Internal Revenue Service.
Close
Third stage of four-stage transaction management process pertaining to bringing the parties
together and consummating an agreement. The acronym CLOSE represents the
contingencies, legal instruments, obstacles, signatures, and execution involved in the close
stage.
Commercial real estate
Any multifamily residential, office, industrial, or retail property that can be bought or sold in
a real estate market.
Common area
For lease purposes, the areas of a building (and its site) that are available for the non-
exclusive use of all its tenants, such as lobbies, corridors, and parking lots. (Real Estate
Information Standards)
Common area maintenance (CAM)
Charges paid by the tenant for the upkeep of areas designated for use and benefit of all
tenants. CAM charges are common in shopping centers. Tenants are charged for parking
lot maintenance, snow removal, and utilities.
Community center
A community center is a retail property type that typically offers a wider range of apparel
and other soft goods than the neighborhood center does. Among the more common
anchors are supermarkets, super drugstores, and discount department stores. Community
center tenants sometimes contain off-price retailers selling such items as apparel, home
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6
Community center (continued)
improvement/furnishings, toys, electronics, or sporting goods. The center is usually
configured as a strip, in a straight line, “L”, or “U” shaped. Of the eight center types,
community centers encompass the widest range of formats. For example, certain centers
that are anchored by a large discount department store refer to themselves as discount
centers. Others with a high percentage of square footage allocated to off-price retailers can
be termed off-price centers.
Comparative advantage
The principle that cities or regions tend to produce those items or support those activities
for which they have the greatest advantage over other areas as defined by the factors of
production, demand, supporting industries, and quality of life considerations, as defined in
relation to human, financial, and physical resources, and opportunity costs—costs expressed
in terms of opportunities foregone.
Competition (retail)
A market condition or setting in which numerous firms compete for a share of the retail
market in a given geographic area; a term which is also used to denote rivals or
competitors.
Compound interest
Interest computed on the original principal and accumulated interest.
Compounding
A type of calculation in which interest earned is reinvested and earns additional interest.
Confidence range method (95%)
A statistical method of estimating a range of vacancy rates with a 95% confidence such that
the expected vacancy rate for the next time period falls within that range (using the sample
mean vacancy rate and corresponding standard deviation as input).
Contract rent
The total rental obligation, expressed in dollars, as specified in a lease. Also known as base
rent. (Real Estate Information Standards)
Cost
The actual dollar amount paid for a property or the amount needed to build or improve it at
a specified time in the future.
Cost approach
A method of determining the market value of a property by evaluating the costs of creating
a property exactly like the subject.
Cost approach improvement value
The current cost to construct a reproduction of, or replacement for, the existing structure
less an estimate for accrued depreciation from all causes. [Appraisal Institute]
Cost of capital
See weighted average cost of capital.
Cost of occupancy
Expenditures that are required to assume and maintain occupancy of a space. Such
expenditures include rent and/or mortgage payments, and recurring costs, such as real
estate taxes, repairs, operating expenses, and other outgoings directly resulting from the
use of the property. (Encyclopedia of Real Estate Terms 2nd Edition, Damien Abbott)
Cost recovery
An annual deduction based on the class life of an asset.
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7
Cost recovery recapture
According to the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997, for properties sold after May 6, 1997, a
noncorporate taxpayer will have to recapture, or pay taxes on, any straight-line cost
recovery taken during the holding period, to the extent there is any gain.

Cross-over chart
A visual representation of the relationship between the costs of leasing and owning at
varying discount rates.
Cross-over (office use) demand
Industrial space that is used as office space in order to lower the rental rate of a property.
Also known as flex space.
Customer-spotting approach
An approach to estimating the retail trade area (and sales/revenue potential) for a given
establishment or center based on the location of existing customers via point-of-sale
information (by obtaining customer address or zip code data) or customer surveys (by
interviewing customers as they enter the store); data which can later be mapped to
determine the extent of the trade area.


-- D
Data
Refers to information collected and presented in a form that facilitates processing and
analysis.

Data dispersion
The amount or degree to which data points in a series are spread or dispersed about their
mean (also referred to as variation about the mean).

Debt-coverage ratio (DCR)
Ratio of net operating income to annual debt service. Expressed as net operating income
divided by annual debt service.
Depreciation
The loss of utility and value of a property.
Demand
The volume or quantity of a product or service purchased, or willing to be purchased, in
relation to price.
Demand factors
Elements or forces that influence the demand for goods and services in a given market
area.

Demographics
Characteristics of human populations as defined by population size and density of regions,
population growth rates, migration, vital statistics, and their effect on socio-economic
conditions.
Depreciation
The loss of utility and value of a property.


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8
Desktop GIS
GIS software programs that support a wide variety of functions, queries, and mapping
capabilities for personal computer-based applications, geared toward visual presentation
and descriptive analyses of geo-coded data.
Differential cash flow
The difference that results when the cash flows from one alternative are subtracted from the
cash flows from another alternative.
Direct survey method
The use of personal interviews with key personnel in all major firms within a given
community to determine the percentage of a firm’s revenues obtained from sales made
outside the local economy for the purpose of estimating firm-specific basic employment and,
by aggregation, the total basic employment in that community; a method that is known to
be costly and time consuming.

Disaggregating demand
The process of separating and identifying the various forces and factors which affect the
demand for a given property type in a given market or the differentiation of demand by
category (in reference to tenure, household income, and geographic submarket).

Disaggregating supply
The process of separating and identifying the various forces and factors which affect the
supply of a given property type in a given market or the differentiation of supply by
category (including leased versus owned, unit type, price, and geographic submarket).

Discount rate
The percentage rate at which money or cash flows are discounted. The discount rate
reflects both the market risk-free rate of interest and a risk premium. Also see opportunity
cost.
Discounted effective rent
The cash flows over the term of the lease, discounted to the present value.
Discounting
The process of reducing the value of money received in the future to reflect the opportunity
cost of waiting to receive the money.
Displaced sales
Sales that result from purchases made by customers who are not located in the subject
service area (represents a revenue gain for retail establishments as sales are generated
from consumers who reside outside the local trade area).
Diversification
A method of reducing risk by investing in unrelated (uncorrelated) assets.
Drain information
Information (substantiated and rumored) regarding inventory that is to be removed from
the market by the forecast period.

Drive-time approach
An approach to estimating the trade area (and sales/revenue potential) for a given retail
establishment or center based on the central place theory concept of range and how far
people are willing to travel to obtain retail goods as defined by drive time or mileage.


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9
Due diligence
The process of examining a property, related documents, and procedures conducted by or
for the potential lender or purchaser to reduce risk. Applying a consistent standard of
inspection and investigation one can determine if the actual conditions do or do not reflect
the information as represented.

Dynamic system
A complex and ever-changing or evolving set of diverse and interrelated entities and agents
which are organized into a coherent and working totality which serves multiple and/or
common purposes or objectives. Also see system and market dynamics.



-- E
Economic base
Those economic activities or sectors in a local or regional economy that account for a certain
share of the area's income that is generated from exports of goods and services.

Economic base analysis
Inquiries that focus on the extent to which changes in basic employment (export-oriented
activities and associated wage-income) affect the economic, employment, and population
growth of a local or regional economy.

Economic base multiplier
A measure that provides a rough estimate of how changes in basic employment will affect
total employment in a given region (all other things being equal); defined as the ratio of
total employment to basic employment.

Economic characteristics
Attributes of the workforce, including production and employment activities.

Economic obsolescence
The reduction in a property’s value due to external circumstances such as legislation or
changes in nearby property use.

Economic sectors
Branches or divisions of a local or regional economy in which particular activities take place.

Effective
An amount after a base amount has been adjusted for concessions, allowances, and costs.
Efficiency
A measure of the capacity or effectiveness of space to produce the desired results with a
minimum expenditure of time, money, energy, and materials.
Efficiency percentage
The relationship of useable area to rentable area on a given property. Also see add-on
factor, load factor, and rentable-to-useable ratio. Formula:

Efficiency %
=
Useable square feet


Rentable square feet
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Employment ratios
The percentage of total employees (at the firm or industry level) that are office space users.

Environmental conditions
Features or state of the physical environment and the surroundings, factors, or forces which
influence or modify that environment.

Environmental hazards
Any physical or natural condition or event which possesses a risk to humans.

Environmental impacts
The repercussions of an activity or specific land use on the physical/social environment as a
consequence of emissions, waste disposal, water and power useage, etc.

Equilibrium point
The price at which the quantity supplied equals the quantity demanded.
Equity lease
A type of joint venture arrangement in which an owner enters into a contract with a user
who agrees to occupy a space and pay rent as a tenant, but at the same time, receives a
share of the ownership benefits such as periodic cash flows, interest and cost recovery
deductions, and perhaps a share of the sales proceeds.
Equity yield rate
The return on the portion of an investment financed by equity capital.
Exchange
Under Section 1031 of the Internal Revenue Code, like-kind property used in a trade or
business or held as an investment can be exchanged tax-deferred. Under a fully qualified
Section 1031 exchange, real estate is traded for other like-kind property. All capital gains
taxes are deferred until the newly acquired real estate is disposed of in a taxable
transaction. The underlying philosophy behind the deferral of capital gains taxes is that
taxation should not occur as long as the original investment remains intact in the form of
(like-kind) real estate (like-kind refers to real property as such, rather than the quality or
quantity of property).
Expansion
A phase of the real estate or business cycle characterized by the dramatic short-term
increase in the supply of available units in a given market (due to economic growth and
increasing construction activity) as a response to increasing and/or pent-up demand and
rising price levels.

Expected value (EV)
The sum of the weighted averages of all possible outcomes of a probability distribution.
Probability distribution is the collection of all possible outcomes for an event and their
corresponding probabilities of occurrence. The probabilities of occurrence for each possible
outcome are used as the weights. The sum of each possible value multiplied by its
probability of occurrence equals the EV of the outcome. EVs can be calculated for any type
of outcome the investor chooses to analyze: net operating incomes, after-tax cash flows,
and rates of return (IRRs). An example of calculating the EV of the IRR for an investment
follows:



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11

Expected value (EV)

Scenario
IRR% Probability Weighted Average
Best-case
17.0
0.10 1.70
Most-likely case
14.6
0.80 11.68
Worst-case
13.2
0.10 1.32

Sum = 1.00 EV = 14.70


Expenditure patterns
The tendencies or propensities of individuals/households to spend disposable income on a
given good or service in comparison to other goods and services (typically defined as a
percentage of disposable income) in relation to income level or range and/or other
demographic or socio-economic characteristics.

Expense stop
The level (or maximum amount) up to which the landlord will pay certain operating
expenses. Amounts above the stop are the responsibility of the tenant.

External economies
Savings or cost-cutting allowances realized by firms or industries within a given city that are
primarily due to the advantages of sharing production inputs, information, and
infrastructure and/or possibly linked to a city's comparative advantage to support a given
activity.

External obsolescence
A form or source of accrued depreciation considered in the cost approach to market value.
The loss of value is because of external forces and change. For example, a new mall causes
traffic and congestion, negatively affecting residential property values nearby, or a motel is
no longer viable because a highway is rerouted, or another example would be depressed
market conditions.



-- F
Factors of production
The rudimentary components of any production process or system consisting of: land and
land-based resources (including raw materials); capital, which includes real capital such as
machinery, facilities, and infrastructure and financial capital to start or expand businesses;
labor or human input (as defined in terms of labor hours or quality/productivity); and
technology which includes production know-how and methods, as well as management and
operations skills.

Fair value of an asset (or liability)
The amount at which the asset (or liability) could be bought (or incurred) or sold (or
settled) in a current transaction between willing parties, that is, other than in a forced or
liquidation sale. (Real Estate Information Standards)



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Fashion/specialty center
This type of retail center is composed mainly of upscale apparel shops, boutiques, and craft
shops carrying selected fashion or unique merchandise of high quality and price. These
centers need not be anchored, although sometimes restaurants or entertainment can
provide the draw of anchors. The physical design of the center is very sophisticated,
emphasizing a rich décor and high-quality landscaping. These centers usually are found in
trade areas having high-income levels.

Feasibility analysis
The process of evaluating a proposed project to determine if that project will satisfy the
objectives set forth by the agents involved (including owners, investors, developers, and
lessees).

Financial leverage
The use of borrowed funds to acquire an investment.
Financial risk
The possible change in an investment’s ability to return principal and income.
Fixed expenses
Costs that do not change with a building’s occupancy rate. They include property taxes,
insurance, and some forms of building maintenance.
Fixed lease
A lease in which the lessee pays a fixed rental amount for the duration of the lease.
Flex space
Space that is flexible in terms of what it can be used for (for example, space that could be
utilized for industrial or office activities). Also see cross-over (office use) demand.
Forecast
An estimate or prediction of a future condition or outcome.
Forecast period
An upcoming time period of interest in which a forecast is to be made.

Formal (or geographic) data
Information/data collected and presented by formal region. Also see formal region.

Formal region
A region identified by political jurisdiction or on the basis of the presence or absence of one
or more distinguishing features or characteristics.
Free rent
See rent concessions.
Fully amortized mortgage loan
A method of loan amortization in which equal periodic payments completely repay the loan.
Functional components
Factors which determine how a location or site functions.

Functional data
Information/data collected and presented by functional region. Also see functional region.



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Functional feasibility
Considerations made in the site selection process which assist in the evaluation of site
potential as defined in terms of the practicality of a site, the best site for a given use, or the
determination of a site's best use, through the examination of linkages, competition,
demographics, and market conditions.
Functional obsolescence
A form or source of accrued depreciation considered in the cost approach to market value.
The reduced capacity of a property or improvements to perform their intended functions due
to new technology, poor design, or changes in market standards.
Functional region
A region delineated in terms of linkages or economic interactions that are typically
organized as a trade area about a dominant location, center, or economic activity.
Future value (FV)
The amount to which money grows over a designated period of time at a specified rate of
interest.
FV
See future value.



-- G
Gap analysis
An evaluation of the difference in the demand and supply of space (measured in terms of
square footage) for a particular type of commercial property in a given market area where
gaps are expressed as the amount of square footage demanded less the amount of square
footage available in a given time period. Note that if demand exceeds supply, the gap will
be positive. A positive gap indicates that potential opportunities exist for successful
commercial real estate transactions. However, transactions might be avoided when supply
exceeds demand (or when a negative gap occurs), as there is an oversupply of available
space in the market.

General market area gap analysis
A gap analysis that is carried out for a city or several cities (simultaneously) to identity one
or more general market areas where a positive gap exists for a particular type of
commercial real estate. Also see gap analysis.

General market factors
Factors influenced by the demographic, economic, and locational characteristics and the
organizational aspects of a market.

Generic space
Commercial space that can be used for a variety of purposes, such as multiple-use office
space.

Geographic Information System(s) (GIS)
System(s) (usually computer-based) used for capturing, handling, storing, retrieving,
managing, manipulating, and displaying geographic information or geo-coded data.



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Geographic submarket
The total number of households or housing units within a given area as defined by tenure,
income, and other socio-economic attributes that are known to exist or estimated to be
within specific geographic units or divisions (for example, in various census tracts).

Globalization
The condition of being or becoming globalized. A concept used to recognize cross-
jurisdictional interdependencies and the continuing integration of local, regional, and
national economies which now form a larger economic and production system that is
worldwide in scope and application; a trend that has greatly affected local economic change
and real estate values.

Government incentives
Concession given or measures taken by local or regional government to attract firms or
investment dollars to a given locality for the purposes of promoting economic growth and
encouraging development.

Gravity model
A model that is used to account for a wide variety of flow patterns in human/economic
systems, based on Newton's gravity equation which defines gravity or the flow potential
(between two sites or locations) as directly proportional to the product of their masses (or
size) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them: gravity =
(mass × mass) ÷ distance2.

Gross area
The entire floor area of a building or the total square footage of a floor.
Gross leasable area (GLA)
The total floor area designed for tenant occupancy and exclusive use, including basements,
mezzanines, and upper floors, and it is measured from the center line of joint partitions and
from outside wall faces. GLA is that area on which tenants pay rent; it is the area that
produces income.
Gross lease
A lease in which all expenses associated with owning and operating the property are paid by
the landlord. Also see net lease.
Gross operating income
The total income generated by the operations of a property before payment of operating
expenses. It is calculated from potential rental income, plus other income affected by
vacancy, less vacancy and credit losses, plus other income not affected by vacancy. The
Annual Property Operating Data form or the Cash Flow Analysis Worksheet can be used to
calculate a property’s gross operating income.
Gross rent multiplier (GRM)
A method investors may use to determine market value. This method calculates the market
value of a property by using the gross rents an investor anticipates the property will
produce at end of year 1 multiplied by a given factor (known as the gross rent multiplier
extracted from the marketplace).
Ground lease
A lease of the land only. Usually the land is leased for a relatively long period of time to a
tenant that constructs a building on the property. A land lease separates ownership of the
land from ownership of buildings and improvements constructed on the land.
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15
Growth patterns
In reference to the patterns of urban or population growth in a geographic market, an
important consideration in retail trade area analyses as growth patterns are known to affect
sales/revenue potential within a market given the tendency of retail to follow population
movement and income concentrations over time.



-- H
Heavy utility needs
In reference to location-decision considerations made in relation to the energy or power
requirements of a firm/user in the assessment of the feasibility of a location to support a
given activity.

Hedging
Protecting oneself against negative outcomes.

High order good
A good or service requiring a high threshold population before it is offered to a market.
Such a good or service requires a large number of consumers to support its business and
requires a larger trade area than a low order good. Also see lower order good.

High-tech
Economic sectors and activities oriented toward the creation and production of high-
technology products and the use of advanced designs, techniques, or devices in fields like
electronics, optics, lasers, aerospace, computers, semiconductors, and telecommunications.

Highest and best use
The reasonably probable and legal use of vacant land or an improved property, which is
physically possible, appropriately supported, financially feasible, and that results in the
highest value. [Appraisal Institute]

Highest and best use (financial) analysis
A determination of the highest and best use of one or more sites (either vacant or as
though vacant) or properties as improved by examining the profitability of all possible use
scenarios (including renovation, rehabilitation, demolition, and replacement).

Household
A housing unit or residence at a given location that is occupied by one or more persons
(that is, a social unit comprised of one or more individuals living together in the same
dwelling or place).

Household population
The total number of households in a given geographic market or submarket as defined by
specific demographic and socio-economic characteristics.

Housing demand
The total number of housing units demanded in a given market, defined as occupied
household units divided by one minus the vacancy allowance for that market (where
demand is affected by the rate at which new households are being added to the market,
allowing for a normal level of vacancy).

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16


-- I
Imbalances
Unstable or nonsustainable conditions which arise out of a market disequilibrium or the lack
of balance between the forces of supply and demand in any or all subcategories of
commercial properties in one or more geographic submarkets over a given time period.

Imperfect market
A market in which product differentiation exists, there is a lack of important product
information, and certain buyers or sellers may influence the market. Commercial real estate
is bought and sold in an imperfect market.
In-migration
The process by which a given geographic area absorbs new individuals/households from
locations outside that area (an influx of individuals/households to a given area).
In-the-door approach
An approach to estimating the trade area (and sales/revenue potential) for a given retail
establishment or center based on observed flow patterns or traffic counts, where estimates
are obtained for both the percentage of traffic that stops or patronizes that
establishment/center and the percentage of people coming in-the-door who make a
purchase.

Income capitalization approach
A method to estimate the value of an income-producing property by converting net
operating income into a value. The cap rate is divided into the net operating income to
obtain the estimated value. Value = net operating income ÷ capitalization rate
Index lease
A lease in which the rental amount adjusts accordingly to changes and/or movements in a
price index, commonly the consumer price index.
Industrial gap
The difference between the demand for an industrial property and the supply of that
property in a given market or area.
Industrial location decision-making
A decision-making process that involves the examination and evaluation of alternative
locations or sites for a particular industrial activity based on location/site feasibility
characteristics; great importance is placed on the national or regional location decision
(usually narrowing the location decision to a handful of cities or localities), with less
importance given to the local site selection process.

Industrial property
Commercial properties that are used for the purposes of production, manufacturing, or
distribution.

Industrial service area
The geographic area within a market that contains either an acceptable number of
employees (and meets necessary labor requirements), or the necessary service and
resources needed to support a given industrial activity or facility.


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17
Initial investment
The outlay of cash needed to acquire an investment.
Input-output modeling
A mathematical approach to the description of a local or national economy, which takes
explicit account of the flows and linkages within and between economic sectors.
Recognizing that output (products and services) from one sector may require production
inputs for other sectors, used to estimate sector- and region-specific multipliers for the
purpose of analyzing the direct and indirect impacts of a given change in a particular sector
or region.
Insurable value
The value of the portions of the property that are physically destructible.
Intangible characteristics
Attributes that are not directly measurable or quantifiable, and therefore must be expressed
in a qualitative or abstract manner.
Interest-only loan
A method of loan amortization in which interest is paid periodically over the term of the loan
and the entire original loan amount is paid at maturity.
Internal growth
The rate at which a base population or the number of new households is changing due to
natural increase (births less deaths) and time (the aging and maturation of that population),
as children are born, grow up, and form families and households of their own.

Internal rate of return (IRR)
The percentage rate earned on each dollar that remains in an investment each year. The
IRR of an investment is the discount rate at which the sum of the present value of future
cash flows equals the initial capital investment.

Internal rate of return method
A comparison method that calculates the internal rate of return of the differential cash flow
between any two investment alternatives, then compares that rate with the user’s
opportunity cost. Also see internal rate of return.
Inventory
The supply or stock of a given commodity or a listing thereof.
Investing
Limiting current consumption in favor of future consumption.
Investment value
The value to a specific investor, based on that investor’s requirements, tax rate, or
financing.
IRR
See internal rate of return.
IRR of the differential
The internal rate of return on the difference between the cash flows for any two investment
alternatives. Also see internal rate of return method and differential cash flow




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18
-- J
No glossary terms are available.



-- K
Key federal laws
With respect to the handling of hazardous materials, they are important laws or statutes
enacted to enforce the responsible handling of materials to minimize the danger to human
beings and/or the environment.

-- L
Labor pool
A body or core group of workers (employed and employable) that make up the local labor
force.

Landlord
The lessor or owner of the leased property.

Landlord-paid tenant improvements (LPTI)
The total cost (outlay) of necessary tenant improvements paid by the landlord netted
against any contribution made by the tenant.

Land sale-leaseback
The same concept as a sale-leaseback, but only the land is sold and leased back using a
ground lease.

Leakage (retail)
Purchases made in other service areas by consumers located within the subject area
(representing a loss of revenue for retailers located within the trade area in which those
consumers reside).

Lease
A contract that creates the relationship of landlord and tenant. A contractually binding
agreement that grants a right to exclusive possession or use of property, usually in return
for a periodic payment called rent. (Encyclopedia of Real Estate Terms 2nd Edition, Damien
Abbott)

Lease buyout
The process by which a landlord, tenant, or third party pays to extinguish the tenant’s
remaining lease obligation and rights under its existing lease agreement.

Lease terminology
Terms commonly used in reference to a lease.

Leased fee
In exchange for permitting a tenant to use the property, the owner/lessor has the right to
receive rental income and the right to repossess the property upon termination of the lease.

Leased fee interest
The value (to the owner) of the rental payments plus the value of the property at the end of
the lease term (reversionary interest).
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19

Leasehold estate
In exchange for rent, the tenant has the right to occupy and use the property for the
duration of the lease.

Leasehold interest
The value (to the tenant) of the lease. The value of the leasehold interest is determined by
present value of the difference between market rent and the contract rent.

Leasing
A means of obtaining the physical and partial economic use of a property for a specified
period without obtaining an ownership interest.

Lessee
The person renting or leasing the property. Also known as a tenant.

Lessor
The person who rents or leases a property to another. Also known as a landlord.

Leverage
The use of borrowed funds to finance a portion of the cost of an investment.
Lifestyle characteristics (psychographics)
Intangible characteristics of a local economy that define and shape the quality of life
element and the social and cultural identity of the local population.
Linkages
The cost to transport goods, services, or people to and from a site measured in time,
distance, and inconvenience.
Liquidation value
The likely price that a property would bring in a forced sale (foreclosure or tax sale). Used
when a sale must occur with limited exposure time to the market or with restrictive
conditions of sale.
Liquidity
The ability to convert an investment into cash quickly without loss of principal.

Load factor
The ratio of rentable area to useable area. The load factor is a gauge by which a user can
evaluate different sites with comparable rents. It is also known as the add-on factor.
Formula:
Load factor =
Rentable square
feet

Useable square feet


Loan balance
The amount of money remaining to be paid on an amortizing loan at a given time.

Loan or mortgage value
That portion of the value of real property recognized by the lender when used to secure a
loan.
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20
Loan point
A charge prepaid by the borrower upon the origination of a loan. One point equals one
percent of the loan amount.
Loan-to-value ratio (L/V)
The amount of money borrowed in relation to the total market value of a property.
Expressed as the loan amount divided by the property value.

Location analysis
The process of evaluating whether a general location meets the requirements of being both
possible and practical as defined on the basis of technical and functional components.


Location quotient
An index, defined in ratio form that compares the proportion of a local activity to the
proportion of that activity found at some larger geographic scale, such as the nation.

Location quotient method
A method for estimating a community's economic base multiplier using basic employment
estimates obtained from estimated location quotients (under various simplifying
assumptions).

Lower order good

A good or service requiring a low threshold population to be offered. A good or
service is considered to have a low threshold if it does not require a large number of
consumers to support its business and thus requires a small trade area. Also see high order
good.



-- M
Macro-economy
Generally used in reference to matters of economy or economic factors and forces portrayed
or operating at the macro-level (as opposed to micro-level), used synonymously with
national economy.

Management
The ability to monitor the performance of an investment and make changes as needed.
Managing risk
The steps taken by an investor or manager to control or reduce investment risk.
Mapping GIS software
Computer-mapping programs that perform any of a wide variety of map-making tasks (for
both on-screen and file-oriented use).
Marketability
The ability to sell or lease a property quickly. Marketability deals with the appeal and
demand for a property, good, or service.
Market area
A geographical area in which supply and demand operate to influence the course of
industrial and commercial activities, for example, a Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA).


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21
Market adjustments
A change in market parameters or conditions brought about in response to one or more
market signals (including price changes from shifts in supply and demand); typically
characterized as cycles, fluctuations, or trends (categories that differ in terms of cause,
duration, and impact on commercial real estate markets).

Market analysis
The process of examining market supply and demand conditions, demographic
characteristics, and opportunities; identifying alternative locations/sites that meet specific
objectives or satisfy various criteria; and assessing the financial feasibility of those
locations/sites to facilitate decision making regarding the commercial potential or suitability
of various locations/sites to support a given activity or use.

Market data
Information/data collected and displayed for a given market or by market area.

Market data approach
A method of determining the property’s value by analyzing recent sales or rental prices of
comparable properties.
Market dynamics
In reference to changing market conditions and the underlying processes responsible for
creating change and defining/redefining interrelationships amongst components in an
economic system (consider the change in price levels of a given commodity as an outcome
of the forces and interplay of supply and demand).
Market feasibility
Pertaining to the evaluation or selection of a site or an analysis of a site's highest and best
use. Also see feasibility analysis.

Market gap
The demand for space minus the supply of space for a specific type of commercial property
in a given real estate market. Also see general market area gap analysis.
Market opportunities
Advantageous circumstances in a market which facilitate a given action or outcome that is
generally viewed as favorable from a money-making standpoint.

Market pricing
The pricing of commodities (including rental rates of various types of commercial properties)
as determined by the forces and factors of influence operating in a market.
Market risk
The possibility that downward market trends will reduce an investment’s market value.

Market share
Refers to the percentage of total sales in a retail category that each competing outlet is
expected to capture based on current patterns and trends in the market.

Market strategy
A course of action defined with respect to a particular real estate market phase. For
example, consider the market strategy of avoiding real estate transactions when there is an
oversupply of space available in the market.

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22
Market value
The most probable price that a property would bring in a competitive and open market
under fair sale conditions. Market value also refers to an estimate of this price.

Match
Second stage of four-stage transaction management process pertaining to gathering and
evaluating property information to unite the investor and user. The acronym MATCH
represents the activities to market, analyze, target, compare, and highlight during the
match stage.

Mean
A measure of central tendency (for a distribution of values) defined as the average value of
a variable in a sample and calculated by adding together all the values observed in a data
set and dividing by the number of values observed.

Median
Defined as the middle value of a data set (or sample) when the values are arranged in order
(by size ranking, in ascending or descending order). Note that for an odd number of values
in an ordered data set, the median is identified as the value which divides the data set into
two data sets of equal size on each side of the median or middle value. For an even
number of values arranged in order, the median is found by simply calculating the value
mid-way between the two middle values. Note that the position of the median value of an
ordered data set containing n observations may be found by using the formula: position of
the median = n/2 + 1/2.

Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)
Generally, the area in and around a major city. The Office of Management and Budget
(OMB) defines an MSA as having one of the following characteristics: a city with a
population of at least 50,000, or an urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000 with
a total metropolitan population of 100,000.

Mid-month convention
A requirement of the Tax Reform Act of 1984 that taxpayers use the 15th of the month to
establish the date of acquisition and date of disposition when calculating cost recovery
deductions. This act applies to real estate placed in service after June 22, 1984 (with the
exception of low-income housing).

Minimum requirement
The observed minimum proportion of employment in a given economic sector for
communities within a given size range, assumed to be that employment/activity level that is
necessary to serve the needs of a community that falls within a predetermined size range
(the minimum amount of nonbasic employment necessary to support a typical mix of
industry for a population base of a given size range).
Minimum requirements method
A method for estimating a community's economic base multiplier using basic employment
estimates that are obtained by comparing employment levels by economic sector to the
identified minimum requirement.
Moving allowance
A specified dollar amount paid by the owner to cover, in part or in whole, tenant moving
expenses. Also known as owner’s moving expense.

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23
Moving expenses
The cost incurred by the tenant to move into the new space. The landlord may pay a
portion or all, depending on what is negotiated in the lease. Also see moving allowance.
Multifamily housing
Housing units that accommodate more than one family or household.

Multiple-use office space
Office space that can be used for a variety of purposes; sometimes referred to as generic
office space.



-- N

n
A component of the T-bar that represents the number of periods over which the investment
is held.
Negative leverage
Borrowed funds are invested at a rate of return lower than the cost of funds to the
borrower.
Neighborhood center
This center is designed to provide convenience shopping for the day-to-day needs of
consumers in the immediate neighborhood. According to ICSC’s SCORE publication, a
supermarket anchors half of these centers, while about a third have a drugstore anchor.
Stores offering pharmaceuticals and health-related products, sundries, snacks and personal
services, support these anchors. A neighborhood center is usually configured as a straight-
line strip with no enclosed walkway or mall area, although a canopy may connect the
storefronts.
Net lease
A lease in which the tenant pays, in addition to rent, all operating expenses such as real
estate taxes, insurance premiums, and maintenance costs. Also see gross lease.
Net operating income (NOI)
The potential rental income plus other income, less vacancy, credit losses, and operating
expenses.
Net present value (NPV)
The sum of all future cash flows discounted to present value and netted against the initial
investment.
Neutral leverage
An investment situation in which the cost of borrowed funds is exactly equal to the yield
provided by the investment.
NOI
See net operating income.
Non-basic employment
Employment that is considered to be of the nonexport-oriented variety: employment not
associated with export-oriented activities. Nonbasic employment is best characterized by
industries and activities that produce goods and services exclusively for local use or
consumption.

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24
Non-household population
That portion of the total population that is not considered to be part of the local residential
housing market; composed of individuals living in dormitory-like facilities (including military
bases) or institutional settings (such as students in residence halls).

NPV
See net present value.



-- O
Obsolescence
In reference to the inadequacy, disuse, outdated, or nonfunctionality of facilities,
infrastructure, products, or production technologies due to effects of time, changing market
conditions, or decay (a factor considered in depreciation to cover the decline in value of
fixed assets due to the invention and adoption of new production technologies, or changing
consumer demand).
Occupancy cost
The actual dollars paid out by the tenant to occupy the space. It can be expressed in either
pre-tax or after-tax dollars.
Office
Low-rise - Fewer than seven stories high above ground level.
Mid-rise - Between seven and twenty-five stories above ground level
High-rise - Higher than twenty-five stories above ground level. [BOMA]
Office gap
The difference between the demand for office space and the supply of office space by
property type, submarket, sector, or user classification in a given geographic market.

Office property
A commercial property type used to maintain or occupy professional or business offices.
Such properties typically house management and staff operations. The term office can refer
to whole buildings, floors, parts of floors, and office parks. Office space that can be used for
a variety of purposes is sometimes referred to as generic office space. Office properties
may be classified as Class A, B, or C. Class A properties are the most functionally modern.
Properties Classed B and C in the same market typically command lower rents because they
are older and in need of modernization. They may not be as efficient or desirable as Class A
properties because their design or condition causes functional problems.
Operating expense stop
A negotiable amount at which the owner’s contribution to operating expenses stops. It also
can be stated as the amount above which the tenant is responsible for its pro rata share of
operating expenses.
Operating expenses
Cash outlays necessary to operate and maintain a property. Examples of operating
expenses include real estate taxes, property insurance, property management and
maintenance expenses, utilities, and legal or accounting expenses. Operating expenses do
not include capital expenditures, debt service, or cost recovery.


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25
Opportunity cost
The cost of selecting one alternative is the benefit foregone from the next best alternative.
Also see discount rate.
Original basis
The total amount paid for a property, including equity capital and the amount of debt
incurred.
Out-migration
The process by which a given geographic area expels or loses individuals/households to
locations outside that area (an outflux of individuals/households from a given area).

Outlet center
A retail property type usually located in rural or occasionally in tourist locations, outlet
centers consist mostly of manufacturers’ outlet stores selling their own brands at a discount.
These centers are typically not anchored. A strip configuration is most common, although
some are enclosed malls, and others can be arranged in a village cluster.

Overage rent
See percentage rent.
Oversupply
In reference to commercial real estate, oversupply is a stock or supply of a given
commercial property type that is greater than that which can be cleared under prevailing
prices levels and market conditions (for example, excess supply). Also, a phase of the real
estate market cycle denoting that period of time in which commercial real estate markets
become saturated with units due to overbuilding.
Owners moving expense
See moving allowance.
Owning
A means of obtaining the full economic use of a property for an unspecified period by
obtaining an ownership interest.



-- P
Partially amortized mortgage loan
The payments do not repay the loan over its term and thus a lump sum (balloon) is required
to repay the loan.
Participation mortgage
A loan secured by real property, with a stated interest rate that also provides for a share to
the lender in annual net cash flow, gain on sale, or proceeds from refinancing the property.
(Real Estate Information Standards)
Passive income
Income from rental activity, limited business interests, or other activities in which the
investor does not materially participate.
Passive losses
Losses from the ownership of passive investments.
Payment (PMT)
A periodic amount paid or received for two or more periods.
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26
Percentage lease
A lease in which the rent amount is based on a percentage of gross sales (monthly or
annually) made by the tenant.
Percentage rent
The additional rent (over a base amount) that is paid by tenants to owners on tenant sales
over a specified dollar amount. It is frequently found in retail leases. Also known as
overage rent.
Perfect market
A market in which the products are homogenous, there is complete information, and no
buyers or sellers may influence the market.
Physical depreciation or deterioration
A form or source of accrued depreciation considered in the cost approach to market value.
The physical decay or deterioration of a property that may result from breakage, deferred
maintenance, effects of age on construction material, and normal wear and tear. (Barron’s
Dictionary of Real Estate Terms)
Physical limitations
Limitations imposed by the physical size, shape, or characteristics of a property or its level
of development.

Pipeline information
Information (substantiated and rumored) regarding new inventory that is in the process of
being added to the market by a specified forecast period.
Planned additional inventory
In reference to commercial real estate, it is the supply or stock of a specific type of
commercial unit or the amount of space that will be available in an upcoming forecast
period from expansions, conv